Artificial Sweeteners

Artificial sweeteners may assist in weight management, prevention of dental caries, and control of blood glucose for diabetics. It has also been suggested that low-calorie sweeteners may stimulate the appetite, but the bulk of evidence does not support this hypothesis. Conclusive research demonstrates that artificial sweeteners have no effect on carbohydrate metabolism, short- or long-term blood glucose control, or insulin secretion, and they are thus an excellent sugar alternative for diabetics. There have been a number of health concerns related with these products, though the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval process for artificial sweeteners involves a comprehensive analysis of scientific data to satisfy safety requirements. All "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) sweeteners have undergone extensive safety testing and have been carefully reviewed by the FDA.

Sugar Alcohols (GRAS)

Sugar alcohols are not technically artificial sweeteners. Examples include sorbitol, xylitol, lactitol, mannitol, isomalt, and maltitol, which are used to sweeten "sugar-free" foods such as candy, cookies, and chewing gum. The alcohols have fewer calories than sugar, do not promote tooth decay, and do not cause a sudden increase in blood glucose because the bloodstream does not easily absorb them. They may cause, however, effects similar to a laxative if consumed in excess. Products containing large amounts of sugar alcohols must be labeled with the warning: "Excess consumption may have a laxative effect."

Artificial Sweeteners Pending FDA Approval

Alitame is two thousand times sweeter than sugar. An FDA petition was filed in 1986. Like neotame, alitame is a derivative of aspartame. It is approved for use in a variety of food and beverage products in Australia, New Zealand, Mexico, Colombia, Indonesia, and the People's Republic of China.

Cyclamate was discovered in 1937, banned in 1969, and a petition for approval was refiled in 1982. After being banned by the FDA in 1969, due to findings that high doses cause bladder tumors in mice, cyclamate has been approved for use in more than fifty countries. The sweetener is a derivative of cyclohexylsulfamic acid and is thirty times sweeter than sucrose. In May 2003, the European Union reduced the recommended average daily intake of this sweetener in soft drinks, juice, and milk-based drinks, based on evidence that the conversion rate of cyclamate in the body is higher than previously thought.

Stevioside (stevia) is obtained from the leaves of a South American shrub. Though it can impart a sweet taste to foods, it cannot be sold as a sweetener because the FDA considers it an unapproved food additive. Stevioside is a high-intensity low-calorie sweetener three hundred times sweeter than sucrose. It is approved in Japan, South Korea, Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina. However, the World Health Organization (WHO) has determined that the data is insufficient to label it as a sweetener.

Artificial sweeteners taste sweet like sugar without the added calories. They do not promote tooth decay, and they are an acceptable alternative for people with diabetes or those wishing to decrease their use of sucrose. Artificial sweeteners, and their metabolic by-products and components, are not considered harmful to human beings at the levels normally used. When used in the context of a healthful diet, artificial sweeteners are generally safe for consumption.

SEE ALSO GENERALLY RECOGNIZED AS SAFE; INBORN ERRORS OF METABOLISM; PHENYLKETONURIA.

Kyle Shadix

Bibliography

American Dietetic Association (1998). "Position of the American Dietetic Association: Use of Nutritive and Nonnutritive Sweeteners." Journal of the American Dietetic Association 98:580–587.

Drewnoski, A. (1995). "Intense Sweeteners and Control of Appetite." Nutrition Review 53:1–7.

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (1993–2003). "Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants." Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.

Nabors, Lyn (2001). Alternative Sweeteners, 3rd edition. New York: Marcel Dekker.

Stegink, Lewis, and Filer, L. (1984). Aspartame: Physiology and Biochemistry. New York: Marcel Dekker.

Nutrition and Well-Being A to Z
Copyright © 1999 by The Gale Group.
Published by The Gale Group. All rights reserved, including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form.

Artificial Sphincter Insertion

Definition

Artificial sphincter insertion surgery is the implantation of an artificial valve in the genitourinary tract or in the anal canal to restore continence and psychological well being to individuals with urinary or anal sphincter insufficiency that leads to severe urinary or fecal incontinence.

Purpose

This procedure is useful for adults and children who have severe incontinence due to lack of muscle contraction by either the urethral sphincter or the bowel sphincter. The primary work of the lower urinary tract and the colon is the storage of urine and waste, respectively, until such time as the expulsion of urine or feces is appropriate. These holding and expelling functions in each system require a delicate balance of tension and relaxation of muscles, especially those related to conscious control of the act of urination or defecation through the valve-like sphincter in each system. Both types of incontinence have mechanical causes related to reservoir adequacy and sphincter, or "gatekeeper" control, as well as mixed etiologies in the chemistry, neurology, and psychology of human makeup. The simplest bases of incontinence lie in the mechanical components of reservoir mobility and sphincter muscle tone. These two factors receive the most surgical attention for both urinary and fecal incontinence.

Urinary sphincter surgery

There are four sources of urinary incontinence related primarily to issues of tone in pelvic, urethral, and sphincter muscles. Most urinary incontinence is caused by leakage when stress is applied to the abdominal muscles by coughing, sneezing, or exercising. Stress incontinence results from reduced sphincter adequacy in the ability to keep the bladder closed during movement. Stress incontinence can also be related to the mobility of the urethra and whether this reservoir for urine tilts, causing spilling of urine. The urethral cause of stress incontinence is treated with other surgical procedures. A second form of incontinence is urge incontinence. It relates to sphincter overactivity, or sphincter hyperflexia, in which the sphincter contracts uncontrollably, causing the patient to urinate, often many times a day. Finally, there is urinary incontinence due to an inadequately small urethra that causes urine overflow. This is known as overflow incontinence and can often be treated with augmentation to the urethra to increase its size.

Only severe stress incontinence related to sphincter adequacy can benefit from the artificial urinary sphincter. This includes conditions that result in the removal of the sphincter. Sphincter deficiency can result directly from pelvic fracture; urethral reconstruction; prostate surgeries; spinal cord injury; neurogenic bladder conditions that include sphincter dysfunction; and some congential conditions. Each can warrant consideration for a sphincter implant.

Implantation surgery related to urinary sphincter incompetence is also called artificial sphincter insertion or inflatable sphincter insertion. The artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) is a small device placed under the skin that keeps pressure on the urethra until there is a decision to urinate, at which point a pump allows the urethra to open and urination commences. Since the 1990s, advances in prostate cancer diagnosis and surgery have resulted in radical prostatectomies being performed, with urinary incontinence rates ranging from 3–60%. The AUS has become a reliable treatment for this main source of urinary incontinence in men. Women with intrinsic sphincter deficiency, or weakened muscles of the sphincter, also benefit from the AUS. However, the use of AUS with women has declined with advances in the use of the sub-urethral sling due to its useful "hammock" effect on the sphincter and its high rates of continence success. Women with neurologenic incontinence can benefit from the AUS.

Artificial anal sphincter surgery

Fecal incontinence is the inability to control bowel function. The condition can be the result of a difficult childbirth, colorectal disease such as Crohn's disease, accidents involving neurological injuries, surgical resection for localized cancer, or by other neurological disorders. Severe fecal incontinence may, depending upon the underlying disease, require surgical intervention that can include repair of the anal sphincter, colostomy, or replacement of the anal sphincter. Artificial anal sphincter is a very easy-to-use device implanted under the skin that mimics the function of the anal sphincter.

Demographics

Artificial urinary sphincter surgery

According to the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, urinary incontinence affects approximately 13 million adults. Men have incontinence rates that are much lower than women, with a range of 1.5–5%, compared to women over 65 with rates of almost 50%. In older men, prostate problems and their treatments are the most common sources of incontinence. Incontinence is a complication in nearly all male patients for the first three to six months after radical prostatectomy. A year after the procedure, most men regain continence. Stress incontinence occurs in 1–5% of men after the standard treatment for severe benign prostatic hyperplasia.

Artificial anal sphincter surgery

According to the National Institute of Diabetes & Digestive & Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), more than 6.5 million Americans have fecal incontinence. Fecal incontinence affects people of all ages. It is estimated that over 2% of the population is affected by fecal incontinence. Many cases are never reported. Community-based studies reveal that 30% of patients are over the age of 65, and 63% are female. According to one study published in the American Journal of Gasteronology, only 34% of incontinent patients have ever mentioned their problem to a physician, even though 23% wear absorbent pads, 12% are on medications, and 11% lead lives restricted by their incontinence. Women are more than five times as likely as men to have fecal incontinence, primarily due to obstetric injury, especially with forceps delivery and anal sphincter laceration. Fecal incontinence is frequent in men who have total and subtotal prostatectomies. Fecal incontinence is not a part of aging, even though it affects people over 65 in higher numbers than other populations.

Description

Artificial urinary sphincter surgery

The artificial urinary sphincter is an implantable device that has three components:

• an inflatable cuff
• a fluid reservoir (balloon)
• a semiautomatic pump that connects the cuff and balloon

Open surgery is the major form of surgery for the implant. Infections are minimized by sterilization of the urine preoperatively and preoperative bowel preparation. The pelvic space is entered from the abdomen or from the vagina, with general anesthesia for the patient. Broad-spectrum antibiotics are given intravenously and at the site of small incisions for the device. A urinary catheter is put into place. The cuff is implanted around the bladder neck and secured and passed through the rectus muscle and anterior fascia to be connected later to the pump. A space is fashioned to hold the balloon in the pubic region, and a pump is placed in a pouch below the abdomen. The artificial urinary sphincter is activated only after six to eight weeks to allow healing from the surgery. The patient is trained in the use of the device by understanding that the cuff remains inflated in its "resting state," and keeps the urethra closed by pressure, allowing continence. Upon the decision to urinate, the patient temporarily deflates the cuff by pressing the pump. The urethra opens and the bladder empties. The cuff closes automatically.

Artificial anal sphincter surgery

The artificial anal sphincter is an implantable device that has three components:

• an inflatable cuff
• a fluid reservoir (balloon)
• a semiautomatic pump that connects the cuff and balloon

In open abdominal surgery, the implant device is placed beneath the skin through small incisions within the pelvic space. One incision is placed between the anus and the vagina or scrotum, and the inflatable cuff is put around the neck of the anal sphincter. A second incision at the lower end of the abdomen is used to make a space behind the pubic bone for placement of the balloon. The pump is placed in a small pocket beneath the labia or scrotum, using two incisions. The artificial anal sphincter is activated only after six to eight weeks to allow healing from the surgery. The patient is trained in the use of the device by understanding that the anal cuff remains inflated in its "resting state," and keeps the anal canal closed by pressure, allowing continence. Upon the decision to have a bowel movement, the patient temporarily deflates the cuff by pressing the pump and fecal matter is released. The balloon re-inflates after the movement.

Diagnosis/Preparation

Artificial urinary sphincter surgery

Patients must be chosen carefully, exhibit isolated sphincter deficiency, and be motivated and able to work with the device and its exigencies. To characterize the condition to be treated and to determine outcomes, full clinical, urodynamic, and radiographic evaluations are necessary. The ability to distinguish mobility of the urethra as the cause of incontinence from sphincter insufficiency is difficult, but very important in the decision for surgery. A combination of pelvic examination for urethral hypermobility and a leak-point pressure as measured by coughing or other abdominal straining has been shown to be very effective in identifying the patient who needs the surgical implant. Visual examination of the bladder with a cystoscope is very important in the preoperative evaluation for placement of the sphincter. Urethral and bladder conditions found by the examination should be addressed before implantation. Previous reconstruction or repair of the urethra may prevent implantation of the cuff. In open abdominal surgery, the implant surgery uses preventive infection measures that are very important, including sterilization of the urine preoperatively with antibiotics, the cleansing of the intestines from fecal matter and secretions through laxatives immediately prior to surgery, and antibiotic treatment and vigorous irrigation of the wound sites.

Artificial anal sphincter surgery

Since only a limited number of patients with fecal incontinence would benefit from an artificial sphincter, it is very important that a thorough examination be performed to distinguish the causes of the incontinence. A medical history and physical, as well as documented entries or an incontinence diary are crucial to the diagnosis of fecal incontinence. The physical exam usually includes a visual inspection of the anus and the area lying between the anus and genitals for hemorrhoids, infections, and other conditions. The strength of the sphincter is tested by the doctor probing with a finger to test muscle strength.

Medical tests usually include:

• Anorectal manometry. This is a long tube with a balloon on the end that is inserted in the anus and rectum to measure the tightness of the anal sphincter and the ability to respond to nerve firings.
• Anorectal ultrasonography. This test also includes an insertion of a small instrument into the anus with a video screen that produces sound waves, picturing the rectum and anus.
• X rays. A substance called barium is used to make the rectum walls visible to x ray. This liquid is swallowed by the patient before the test.
• Anal electromyography. This test uses the insertion of tiny needle electrodes into muscles around the anus and tests for nerve damage.

Aftercare

Artificial urinary sphincter surgery

Surgery requires a few days of hospitalization. Oral and intravenous pain medications are administered, along with postoperative antibiotics. A general diet is available, usually on the evening of surgery. When the patient is able to walk, the urethral catheter is removed. Patients are discharged on the second day postoperatively, unless they have had other procedures and need extra recovery time. Patients may not lift heavy objects or engage in strenuous activity for approximately six weeks. After six to eight weeks, the patient returns to the physician for training in the use of the implant device.

Artificial anal sphincter surgery

Surgery hospitalization requires a few days with dietary restrictions and anti-diarrheal medicine to bind the bowels. Antibiotics are administered to lower the risk of infection, and skin incisions are cleaned frequently. Patients may not lift heavy objects or engage in strenuous activity for approximately six weeks. After the body has had time to heal over six to eight weeks, the patient returns to the physician for training in the use of the pump. Two or three sessions are required and after the training, the patient is encouraged to lead as normal a life as possible.

Normal results

Artificial urinary sphincter surgery

One problem with the urinary sphincter implant is failure. If the device fails, or the cuff erodes, the surgery must be repeated. In a study published in 2001, 37% of women had the implant after an average of seven years, but 70% had the original or a replacement and 82% were continent. Studies on men report similar findings. Malfunction has improved with advances in using a narrower cuff. In one large study encompassing one surgeon over 11 years, the re-operative rate of AUS related to malfunction in men was 21%. Over 90% of patients were alive with a properly functioning device.

Another problem with the surgery is urinary voiding. This may be difficult initially due to postoperative edema caused by bruising of the tissue. In the majority of cases, urination occurs after swelling has receded.

AUS is a good alternative for children. The results of AUS in children range from 62–90%, with similar rates for both girls and boys.

Artificial anal sphincter surgery

Anal sphincter implant surgery has been successfully performed for many years. The device most often used has a cumulative failure rate of 5% over 2.5 years. The long-term functional outcome of artificial anal sphincter implantation for severe fecal incontinence has not been determined. However, adequate sphincter function is recovered in most cases, and the removal rate of the device is low. Most of the good results are dependent upon careful patient selection and appropriate surgical and operative management with a highly experienced surgical team.

Morbidity and mortality rates

Artificial urinary sphincter surgery

Infection has been a frequent and serious complication of surgery, not only because of the infection per se, but also because infection can cause erosion of the urethra or bladder neck under the implant. The infection may actually worsen the incontinence. The overall infection rate with AUS implants is 1–3%. Because of interactions between the host and the foreign body represented by the implant, infections can occur soon after the surgery, or months and even years later. New techniques using antibiotics and skin preparations have improved infection rates considerably.

Artificial anal sphincter surgery

This surgery is for a limited number of patients who have isolated sphincter deficiency. Patients must be chosen who have little co-morbidity (serious illnesses) and can be trained in the use of the pump. Although it is a fairly simple operation, some researchers report a 30% infection rate.

Alternatives

Artificial urinary sphincter surgery

Milder forms of urinary incompetence can be treated with changes in diet, evaluation of medications, and the use of antidepressants and estrogen replacement, as well as bladder training and pelvic muscle strengthening. However, sphincter deficiency, unlike incontinence caused by urethral mobility, requires a substitute for the sphincter contraction by implant or by auxiliary tissue. If AUS cannot treat sphincter deficiency, the sling or "hammock" procedure is a good second choice. It brings tightness to the sphincter by using tissue under the urethra to increase contractual function. The sling procedure is already preferred over the AUS for women.

Artificial anal sphincter surgery

Milder forms of fecal incontinence are being treated by changes in diet and the use of certain bowel-binding medications. For some forms of mild fecal incontinence, special forms of exercise can help to strengthen and tone the pelvic floor muscles, along with providing biofeedback to train the muscles to work with an appropriate schedule. Only after these measures have been tried, including the use of pads, is the patient counseled on the benefits of an anal sphincter implant.

Resources

BOOKS

Walsh, P., et al. Campbell's Urology, 8th Edition. St. Louis: Elsevier Science, 2000.

PERIODICALS

Michot, F. "Artificial Anal Sphincter in Severe Fecal Incontinence: Outcome of Prospective Experience with 37 Patients in One Institution." Annals of Surgery, Vol. 237, No. 1 (January 1, 2003): 52–56.

Rotholtz, N. A., and S. D. Wexner. "Surgical Treatment of Constipation and Fecal Incontinence." Gastroenterology Clinics, Vol. 30, No. 01 (March 2001).

ORGANIZATIONS

American Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons. 85 W. Algonquin Rd., Suite 550, Arlington Heights, IL 60005. <www.fascrs.org.>.

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (800) 891-5390 (kidney); (800) 860-8747 (diabetes); (800) 891-5389 (digestive diseases). <www.niddk.nih.gov.>.

National Association of Incontinence. <www.nafc.org.>.

OTHER

Fecal Incontinence. National Institute of Diabetes & Digestive & Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). <www.niddk.nih.gov/health/digest/pubs/fecalincon/fecalincon.htm>.

Incontinence in Men. Health and Age. <http://www.healthand age.com.>.

Urinary Incontinence. WebMD Patient Handout. <www.MD-consult.com.>.

Urinary Incontinence in Women. National Institute of Diabetes & Digestive & Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). <www.niddk.nih.gov/health/urolog/pubs/uiwomen/uiwomen.htm.>.

Nancy McKenzie, PhD

The Gale Encyclopedia of Surgery: A Guide For Patients And Caregivers
Copyright © 1999 by The Gale Group.
Published by The Gale Group. All rights reserved, including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form.

Artificial Intelligence

Computer systems are becoming commonplace; indeed, they are almost ubiquitous. We find them central to the functioning of most business, governmental, military, environmental, and health-care organizations. They are also a part of many educational and training programs. But these computer systems, while increasingly affecting our lives, are rigid, complex and incapable of rapid change. To help us and our organizations cope with the unpredictable eventualities of an ever-more volatile world, these systems need capabilities that will enable them to adapt readily to change. They need to be intelligent. Our national competitiveness depends increasingly on capacities for accessing, processing, and analyzing information. The computer systems used for such purposes must also be intelligent. Health-care providers require easy access to information systems so they can track health-care delivery and identify the most recent and effective medical treatments for their patients' conditions. Crisis management teams must be able to explore alternative courses of action and support decision making. Educators need systems that adapt to a student's individual needs and abilities. Businesses require flexible manufacturing and software design aids to maintain their leadership position in information technology, and to regain it in manufacturing. (Grosz and Davis, 1994)

The history of artificial intelligence (AI) predates the development of the first computing machines. On a general level, intelligence has been the subject of philosophical study for 2000 years. At the computational level, mathematician Alan Turing constructed a framework for AI during the era of analog computers.

While precise definitions are still the subject of debate, AI may be usefully thought of as the branch of computer science that is concerned with the automation of intelligent behavior. The intent of AI is to develop systems that have the ability to perceive and to learn, to accomplish physical tasks, and to emulate human decision making. AI seeks to design and develop intelligent agents as well as to understand them. Currently, the main fields of research and development include the following:

1. Natural languages: These studies focus on problems related to natural language interface, machine translation, understanding spoken language, and so forth.
2. Expert systems: No generalizable solutions are researched, but expertise is used to deal with ill-defined problems and relationships.
3. Cognition and learning: Investigations are being made into modes of thinking, learning, and problem solving.
4. Computer vision: Efforts are being made to develop principles and algorithms for machine vision and the interpretation of visual data.
5. Automatic deduction: This area deals with the resolution of problems, theorem proving, and logic programming.

FOUNDATIONS

The term "AI" was applied about 1956, giving a formal name to work that had been developing over the previous five or six years. Individuals and organizations have an abiding interest in AI for several important reasons, including the following:

1. To preserve expertise that might be lost when an acknowledged expert is unavailable.
2. To create organizational knowledge bases so that others may learn from past problem-solving successes.
3. To help decision makers be consistent in their evaluation of complex problems.

During its early years AI was dominated by reliance on logic as a means of representing knowledge and on logical inference as the primary mechanism for intelligent reasoning. In the 1990s other paradigms arrived on the scene, some of which had a dramatic impact. Artificial neural networks (ANNs) were motivated by assumptions about how the brain functions— particularly the ideas of massively parallel connections, each of which performs simple computational tasks. Taken together, they represent knowledge as a property of patterns of relationships. Genetic algorithms apply principles of biological evolution to the problems of searching complex solution spaces. The programs do not use logical reasoning either, but evolve toward better and better solutions to complex problems.

Multiagent systems have recently come to the fore of AI research. This emergence has been driven by a recognition that intelligence may be reflected by the collective behaviors of large numbers of very simple interacting members of a community of agents. These agents can be computers, software modules, or virtually any object that can perceive aspects of its environment and proceed in a rational way toward accomplishing a goal.

A variety of disciplines have influenced the development of AI. These include philosophy (logic), mathematics (intractibility, computability, algorithms), psychology (cognition), engineering (computer hardware and software), and linguistics (knowledge representation and natural-language processing).

Long before the development of computers, the notion that thinking was a form of computation motivated the formalization of logic. These efforts continue today. Graph theory provided the architecture for searching a solution space for a problem. Operations research, with its focus on optimization algorithms, used graph theory and other methods to solve complex decision-making problems.

In 1950, Alan Turing proposed what has become known as the Turing Test for defining intelligent behavior. The idea was to specify requirements that a computer would have to exhibit in order to demonstrate intelligence. Briefly, the Turing Test proposes that the computer should be interrogated via telecommunications by a human. Intelligence is exhibited by the computer if the interrogator cannot tell whether there is a human or a computer at the other end. In order to pass the test, a computer would need to have capabilities for natural-language processing, knowledge representation, automated reasoning, and machine learning.

AN EVOLUTION OF APPLICATIONS

While computer systems have become commonplace, they are generally rigid, complex, and incapable of rapid change. According to A Report to ARPA on Twenty-First Century Intelligent Systems, for us and our organizations to cope with the unpredictable eventualities of an ever-more volatile world, these systems need capabilities that will enable them to adapt readily to change. The report argues that our national competitiveness depends increasingly on capacities for accessing, processing, and analyzing information (Grosz and Davis, 1994).

One of the early milestones in AI was Newell and Simon's General Problem Solver (GPS). The program was designed to imitate human problem-solving methods. This and other developments such as Logic Theorist and the Geometry Theorem Prover generated enthusiasm for the future of AI. Simon went so far as to assert that in the near-term future the problems that computers could solve would be coextensive with the range of problems to which the human mind has been applied.

Soon difficulties in achieving this objective began to manifest themselves. In scaling up from earlier successes, problems of intractability were encountered. A search for alternative approaches led to attempts to solve typically occurring cases in narrow areas of expertise. This prompted the development of expert systems. A seminal model was MYCIN, developed to diagnose blood infections. Having about 450 rules, MYCIN was able to perform as well as many experts. This and other expert-systems research led to the first commercial expert system, R1, implemented at Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) to help configure orders for new computer systems. Sub-sequent to R1's implementation, it was estimated to save DEC about $40 million a year.

Other classic systems include the PROSPECTOR program for determining the probable location and type of ore deposits and the INTERNIST program for performing medical diagnosis in internal medicine.

THE FUTURE

A Report to ARPA on Twenty-First Century Intelligent Systems identified four types of systems that will have a substantial impact on applications: intelligent simulation, intelligent information resources, intelligent project coaches, and robot teams (Grosz and Davis, 1994).

Intelligent simulations generate realistic simulated worlds that enable extensive affordable training and education that can be made available any time and anywhere. Examples may be hurricane crisis management, exploration of the impacts of different economic theories, tests of products on simulated customers, and technological design—testing features through simulation that would cost millions of dollars to test using an actual prototype.

Intelligent information resources systems (IRSS) will enable easy access to information related to a specific problem. For instance, a rural doctor whose patient presents with a rare condition might use IRSS to help assess different treatments or identify new ones. An educator might find relevant background materials, including information about similar courses taught elsewhere.

Intelligent project coaches (IPC) could function as co-workers, assisting and collaborating with design or operations teams for complex systems. Such systems could remember and recall the rationale of previous decisions and, in times of crisis, explain the methods and reasoning previously used to handle that situation. An IPC for aircraft design, for example, could enhance collaboration by keeping communication flowing among the large, distributed design staff, the program managers, the customer, and the subcontractors.

Robot teams could contribute to manufacturing by operating in a dynamic environment with minimal instrumentation, thus providing the benefits of economies of scale. They could also participate in automating sophisticated laboratory procedures that require sensing, manipulation, planning, and transport.

CONCLUSION

AI is a young field and faces many complexities. Nonetheless, the Spring 1998 issue of AI Magazine contained articles on the following innovative applications of AI: This is suggestive of the broad potential of AI in the future.

1. "Case- and Constraint-Based Project Planning for Apartment Construction"
2. "CREWS–NS: Scheduling Train Crews in The Netherlands"
3. "An Intelligent System for Case Review and Risk Assessment in Social Services"
4. "CHEMREG: Using Case-Based Reasoning to Support Health and Safety Compliance in the Chemical Industry"
5. "MITA: An Information-Extraction Approach to the Analysis of Free-Form Text in Life Insurance Applications"

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AI Magazine. (Spring 1998).

Grosz, Barbara, and Davis, Randall, eds. (1994). A Report to ARPA on Twenty-First Century Intelligent Systems.

Luger, George F., and Stubblefield, William A. (1998). Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving, 3d ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Russell, Stuart J., and Norvig, Peter. (1995). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

JAMES V. HANSEN

The Gale Encyclopedia of Busine$$ and Finance
Copyright © 1999 by The Gale Group.
Published by The Gale Group. All rights reserved, including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form.

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