Turkic languages

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The Turkic languages constitute a language family of some thirty languages, spoken across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean to Siberia and Western China, and are traditionally considered to be part of the proposed Altaic language family.

Turkic languages are spoken by some 180 million people as a native language; and the total number of Turkic speakers is about 200 million, including speakers as a second language. The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish proper, or Anatolian Turkish, the speakers of which account for about 40% of all Turkic speakers.

Characteristics

The characteristic features of the Turkic languages are vowel harmony, extensive agglutination by means of suffixes, and lack of noun classes or grammatical gender. Subject Object Verb word order is universal within the family. All of these distinguishing characteristics are shared with the Mongolic and Tungusic language families, as well as with the Korean language, which are by some linguists considered to be genetically linked with the Turkic languages in the proposed Altaic language family, a language family rejected by some linguists though plainly accepted in the Voegelin & Voegelin classification (1977:18-19).

History

The geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia spreads from Turkey in the West to the North-East of Siberia (see picture in the box on the right above).

Early written records

The first established records of the Turkic languages are the 8th century Orkhon inscriptions by the Göktürks, recording the Old Turkic language, which were discovered in 1889 in the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia. The Compendium of the Turkic Dialects (Divânü Lügati't-Türk), written during the 11th century by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. The Compendium is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and also includes the first known map of the Turkic speakers' geographical distribution. It mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family.

The Codex Cumanicus (12th - 13th centuries) concerning the Northwestern branch is another early linguistic manual, between Kipchak language and Latin, used by the Catholic missionaries sent to the Western Cumans inhabiting a region corresponding to present-day Hungary and Romania. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, the parent to today's Chuvash language, are dated to 13th - 14th centuries.

Geographical expansion and development

With the Turkic expansion during Early Middle Ages (c. 6th - 11th centuries), Turkic languages, in the course of just a few centuries, spread across Central Asia, stretching from Siberia (the Sakha Republic) to the Mediterranean (Seljuk Turks). Various elements from the Turkic languages have passed into Hungarian, Persian, Urdu, Russian, Chinese and to a lesser extent, Arabic.

Classification

For centuries, the Turkic speaking peoples have migrated extensively and intermingled continuously, and their languages have been influenced mutually and through contact with the surrounding languages, especially the Iranian, Slavic, and Mongolic languages. This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, and as a result, there exist several systems to classify the Turkic languages. The modern genetic classification schemes for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich (1922) and are mainly based on the development of *d. However, there are still many elements of questioning for which ongoing research has not yet found an adequate solution.

The Turkic languages may uncontroversially be divided into six branches (Johanson 1998):

Southwestern (Oghuz Turkic)
Northwestern (Kypchak Turkic)
Southeastern (Uyghur Turkic)
Northeastern (Siberian Turkic)
Oghur Turkic
Arghu Turkic

With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized as West Turkic, the Northeastern, Kyrgyz-Kypchak and Arghu (Khalaj) groups as East Turkic.

Geographically and linguistically, the languages of Northwestern, and Southeastern subgroup belong to the central Turkic languages, while the Northeastern and Khalaj languages are the so-called peripheral languages.

Members

The following table is based upon the classification scheme presented by Lars Johanson (1998)

Proto-Turkic	Southwestern Common Turkic (Oghuz)			Pecheneg (extinct)
		West Oghuz		Ottoman Turkish (extinct), Turkish Gagauz Azerbaijani
		East Oghuz		Turkmen Khorasani Turkic
		South Oghuz		Afshar Dialects of Iran such as Qashqai, Sonqori, Aynallu, etc.
	Northwestern Common Turkic (Kipchak)			Kipchak (extinct)
		West Kipchak		Kumyk Karachay-Balkar Crimean Tatar, Urum Krymchak Cuman (extinct) Karaim
		North Kipchak (Volga-Ural)		Kazan Tatar Mishar Bashkir West Siberian Tatar
		South Kipchak (Aralo-Caspian)		Kazakh Karakalpak Kyrgyz Kipchak Uzbek Nogay
	Southeastern Common Turkic (Uyghur, Chagatai, Karluk)	West		Uzbek Uyghur Taranchi
		East		Eastern Turki dialects of Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, Kerya, Cherchen, Aksu, Kucha, Turfan, etc. Western Yugur (Yellow Uyghur) Salar Old Turkic (extinct) Chagatay (extinct) Aini Lop Ili Turki
	Northeastern Common Turkic (Siberian)	North Siberian		Sakha (Yakut) Dolgan
		South Siberian	Sayan Turkic	Tuvan (Soyot, Uriankhai) Tofa
			Yenisei Turkic	Khakas Fuyü Gïrgïs Shor (Saghay Qaca, Qizil)
			Chulym Turkic	Chulym (Küerik)
			Altai Turkic	Altay Oirot and dialects such as Tuba, Qumanda, Qu, Teleut, Telengit
	Oghur			Chuvash Khazar (extinct) Turkic Avar (extinct) Bolgar (extinct) Hunnic (extinct)
	Arghu			Khalaj

Vocabulary comparison

The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family (about 60 words). Note that empty cells do not imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language is formed from another stem and is not a cognate with the other the words in the row. Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, and so the "common meaning" given is only approximate. In some cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language. Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted.

	common meaning	Old Turkic	Turkish	Azeri	Turkmen	Tatar	Kazakh	Kyrgyz	Uzbek	Uyghur	Sakha/Yakut	Chuvash
Persons	(Grand)father/Ancestor	Ata	Ata	Ata	Ata	Ata	Ata	Ata	Ota	Ata		Atte
	Mother	Ana	Anne, Ana	Ana	Ene	Ana	Ana	Ene	Ona	Ana		Anne
	Son	O'gul	Oğul	Oğul	Oğul	Ul, uğıl	Ul	Uul	O'gil	Oghul	Uol	Yvǎl
	Man	Er(kek)	Erkek	Kişi	Erkek	İr	Er(kek)	Erkek	Erkak	Er	Er	Ar
	Girl	Kyz	Kız	Qız	Gyz	Qız	Qız	Kız	Qiz	Qiz	Ky:s	Khər
	Person	Kiši	Kişi		Kişi	Keşe	Kisi	Kishi	Kishi	Kishi	Kihi
	Bride	Kelin	Gelin	Gəlin	Geli:n	Kilen	Kelin	Kelin	Kelin	Kelin	Kylyn	Kin'əm
	Mother-in-law		Kaynana	Qaynana	Gayın ene	Qayın ana	Qayın ene	Kaynene	Qayın ona	Qeyinana		Khun'ama
Body parts	Heart	Jürek	Yürek	Ürək	Ýürek	Yöräk	Jürek	Jürök	Yurak	Yürek	Süreq	Jəre
	Blood	Qan	Kan	Qan	Ga:n	Qan	Qan	Kan	Qon	Qan	Qa:n	Yun
	Head	Baš	Baş	Baş	Baş	Baş	Bas	Bash	Bosh	Baş	Bas	Puş
	Hair	Qıl	Kıl	Qıl	Qyl	Qıl	Qıl	Kıl	Tuk	Qil	Kıl
	Eye	Köz	Göz	Göz	Göz	Küz	Köz	Köz	Ko'z	Köz	Kos	Kuş
	Eyelash	Kirpik	Kirpik	Kiprik	Kirpik	Kerfek	Kirpik	Kirpik	Kiprik	Kirpik	Kirbi:	Khurbuk
	Ear	Qulqaq	Kulak	Qulaq	Gulak	Qolaq	Qulaq	Kulak	Quloq	Qulaq	Gulka:k	Khǎlkha
	Nose	Burun	Burun	Burun	Burun	Borın	Murın	Murun	Burun	Burun	Murun
	Arm	Qol	Kol	Qol	Gol	Qul	Qol	Kol	Qo'l		Qol	Khul
	Hand	El(ig)	El	Əl	El		Alaqan	Alakan			Ili:	Alǎ
	Finger	Barmak	Parmak	Barmaq	Barmak	Barmaq	Barmaq	Barmak	Barmoq	Barmaq		Pűrne
	Fingernail	Tyrnaq	Tırnak	Dırnaq	Dyrnaq	Tırnaq	Tırnaq	Tırnak	Tirnoq	Tirnaq	Tynyraq	Jərne
	Knee	Tiz	Diz	Diz	Dy:z	Tez	Tize	Tize	Tizza	Tiz	Tüsäχ	Jərkuş
	Calf	Baltyr	Baldır	Baldır	Baldyr	Baltır	Baldır	Baldır	Boldyr	Baldir	Ballyr
	Foot	Adaq	Ayak	Ayaq	Aýaq	Ayaq	Ayaq	Ayak	Oyoq	Ayaq	Ataq	Ura
	Belly	Qaryn	Karın	Qarın	Garyn	Qarın	Qarın	Karın	Qorin	Qerin	Qaryn	Khyrǎm
Animals	Horse	At	At	At	At	At	At	At	Ot	At	At	Ut
	Cattle	Siyir	Sığır		Sygyr	Sıyır	Sïır	Sıyır	Sigir	Siyir
	Dog	Yt	İt	İt	It	Et	Ït	It	It	It	Yt	Yyt
	Fish	Balyq	Balık	Balıq	Balyk	Balıq	Balıq	Balık	Baliq	Beliq	Balyk	Pulǎ
	Louse	Bit	Bit	Bit	Bit	Bet	Bït	Bit	Bit	Pit	Byt	Pyitǎ
Other nouns	House	Ev	Ev	Ev	Öý	Öy	Üy	Üy	Uy	Öy
	Tent	Otag	Otağ		Otaq		Otaw		Otoq	Otaq	Otu:
	Way	Yol	Yol	Yol	Yo:l	Yul	Jol	Jol	Yo'l	Yol	Suol	Şul
	Bridge	Köprüq	Köprü	Körpü	Köpri	Küper	Köpir	Köpürö	Ko'prik	Kövrük	Kürpe	Kəper
	Arrow	Oq	Ok	Ox	Ok	Uq	Oq	Ok	O'q	Oq	Oχ	Ukhǎ
	Fire	Ot	Od	Od	Ot	Ut	Ot	Ot	O't	Ot	Uot	Vut
	Ash	Kül	Kül	Kül	Kül	Köl	Kül	Kül	Kul	Kül	Kül	Kəl
	Water	Suv	Su	Su	Suw	Su	Sw	Suu	Suv	Su	Ui	Shyv
	Ship, boat	Kemi	Gemi	Gəmi	Gämi	Köymä	Keme	Keme	Kema	keme		Kimə
	Lake	Köl	Göl	Göl	Köl	Kül	Köl	Köl	Ko'l	Köl	Küöl	Kül
	Sun/Day	Küneš	Gün(eş)	Gün(əş)	Gün	Kön	Kün	Kün	Kun	Kün	Kün	Kun
	Cloud	Bulut	Bulut	Bulud	Bulut	Bolıt	Bult	Bulut	Bulut	Bulut	Bylyt	Pələt
	Star	Yulduz	Yıldız	Ulduz	Ýyldyz	Yoldız	Juldız	Jıldız	Yulduz	Yultuz	Sulus	Şoldor
	Earth	Topraq	Toprak	Torpaq	Toprak	Tufraq	Topıraq	Topurak	Tuproq	Tupraq	Toburaχ	Topra
	Hilltop	Töpü	Tepe	Təpə	Depe	Tübä	Töbe	Töbö	Tepa	Töpe	Töbö	Tübe
	Tree	Yağac	Ağaç	Ağac	Agaç	Ağaç	Ağaş
	God (Tengri)	Tenri	Tanrı	Tanrı	Taňry	Täñre	Täñiri	Teñir	Tangri	Tengri	Tanara	Turǎ
	Sky	Kök	Gök	Göy	Gök	Kük	Kök	Kök	Ko'k	Kök	Küöq	Kovak
Adjectives	Long	Uzun	Uzun	Uzun	Uzyn	Ozın	Uzın	Uzun	Uzun	Uzun	Uhun
	New	Yany	Yeni	Yeni	Yany	Yaña	Jaña	Jañı	Yangi	Yengi	Sana	Şənə
	Fat	Semiz	Semiz		Semiz	Simez	Semiz	Semiz	Semiz	Semiz	Emis	Samar
	Full	Tolu	Dolu	Dolu	Do:ly	Tulı	Tolı	Tolo	To'la	Toluq	Toloru	Tulli
	White	Aq	Ak	Ağ	Ak	Aq	Aq	Ak	Oq	Aq
	Black	Qara	Kara	Qara	Gara	Qara	Qara	Kara	Qora	Qara	Xara	Khura
	Red	Qyzyl	Kızıl	Qızıl	Gyzyl	Qızıl	Qızıl	Kızıl	Qizil	Qizil	Kyhyl
Numbers	1	Bir	Bir	Bir	Bir	Ber	Bir	Bir	Bir	Bir	Bi:r	Pərre
	2	Eki	İki	İki	Iki	İke	Eki	Eki	Ikki	Ikki	Ikki	Ikkə
	4	Tört	Dört	Dörd	Dö:rt	Dürt	Tört	Tört	To'rt	Töt	Tüört	Tuattǎ
	7	Yeti	Yedi	Yeddi	Yedi	Cide	Jeti	Jeti	Yetti	Yättä	Sette	Şitchə
	10	On	On	On	O:n	Un	On	On	O'n	On	Uon	Vunnǎ
	100	Yüz	Yüz	Yüz	Yü:z	Yöz	Jüz	Jüz	Yuz	Yüz	Sü:s	Şər
		Old Turkic	Turkish	Azeri	Turkmen	Tatar	Kazakh	Kyrgyz	Uzbek	Uyghur	Sakha/Yakut	Chuvash

References

External links

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Last updated on Wednesday March 12, 2008 at 10:58:55 PDT (GMT -0700)
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