Translatio imperii

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Translatio imperii, Latin for "transfer of rule", is a concept invented in the Middle Ages for describing history as a linear development: a succession of transfers of power from one supreme ruler (emperor) to the next.

Jacques Le Goff describes the "translatio imperii" concept as typical for the Middle Ages for several reasons: the idea of linearity of time and history was typical for the Middle Ages; the "translatio imperii" idea typically also neglected simultaneous developments in other parts of the world (of no importance to medieval Europeans); the "translatio imperii" idea didn't separate divine history from the history of worldly power: medieval Europeans considered divine (supernatural) and material things as part of the same continuum, which was their "reality". Also the causality of one reign necessarily leading to its successor was often detailed by the medieval chroniclers, and is seen as a typical medieval approach.

Not surprisingly, each medieval author described the "translatio imperii" as a succession leaving the supreme power in the hands of the monarch ruling the region of the author's provenance:

Otto of Freising (living in German region): Rome → Byzantium → Franks → Longobards → Germans (=Holy Roman Empire);
Chrétien de Troyes (living in medieval France): Greece → Rome → France
Richard de Bury (England, 14th century): "Athens" (Greece) → Rome → "Paris" (France) → England

Medieval and Renaissance authors often linked this transfer of power by genealogically attaching a ruling family to an ancient Greek or Trojan hero; this schema was modeled on Virgil's use of Aeneas (a Trojan hero) as mythic founder of the city of Rome in his Aeneid. Continuing with this tradition, the twelfth-century anglo-Norman authors Geoffrey of Monmouth (in his Historia Regum Britanniae) and Wace (in his Brut) linked the founding of Britain to the arrival of Brutus of Troy, son of Aeneas. In a similar way, the French Renaissance author Jean Lemaire de Belges (in his Les Illustrations de Gaule et Singularités de Troie) linked the founding of Celtic Gaul to the arrival of the Trojan "Francus", the son of Hector; and of Celtic Germany to the arrival of "Bavo", the cousin of Priam; in this way he established an illustrious genealogy for Pepin and Charlemagne (the legend of "Francus" would also serve as the basis for Ronsard's epic poem, "La Franciade").

A detailed translatio imperii succession (ending in Russia)

Start: Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was founded in 27 BC by Augustus Caesar. In 395, at the death of the Emperor Theodosius I, the empire was split in half with each governed by a co-emperor ruling in Rome (actually in Milan, from 402 Ravenna) and Constantinople (New Rome). The eastern half, now known as the Byzantine Empire, continued to call itself the Roman empire despite only holding Rome intermittently until 751 and not at all in the period following. The Byzantine emperors and state claimed to be the successor of the Roman empire.

Holy Roman Empire

In 800, the pope crowned Charlemagne Roman Emperor. This set off a constitutional crisis as the Byzantines did not recognize the coronation. In order to settle the dispute, Byzantine Empress Irene offered to marry Charlemagne. Though she was unable to marry him after being overthrown and exiled, the offer itself was considered to be translatio imperii. The imperium supposedly passed to Charlemagne's successors and eventually landed in the Holy Roman Empire. This explains the Roman component of the Empire's name. The Holy Roman Emperors thus thought of themselves as being in direct succession of the ancient Roman Augusti and were bolstered in their claim, specifically against the Kings of France who might also claim lineage from Charlemagne, by papal crownings. After 1508, Holy Roman Emperors no longer were crowned by the pope and were thus technically emperors-elect. In 1806, the Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved.

Fourth Crusade

In 1204, the Fourth Crusade split the Byzantine Empire into four states that claimed Roman imperium: the Latin Empire of Constantinople, the Despotate of Epirus, the Empire of Trebizond, and the Empire of Nicaea. The Nicaeans forced Epirus to submit and crushed the Latins. After retaking Constantinople, the Nicaeans restored the Byzantine Empire but Trebizond remained independent and held onto their claim of the Roman imperial throne.

Empire of Nicaea (1204–1261) — The legitimate Byzantine throne in exile. Restored the Byzantine Empire in 1261. The Nicaean line would rule until 1453.
Latin Empire of Constantinople (1204-1261) — Crusader state, pretenders abandoned imperial title in 1383 while in exile.
Despotate of Epirus (1204–1359) — Second despot claimed title 1227–1230. Became vassal of Nicaea in 1248.
Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461) — Splinter state that claimed imperium. Conquered by Ottomans in 1461.

Ottoman Empire

In 1453, the Ottoman Empire conquered the Byzantine Empire. Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II took the title of Roman Emperor. He extinguished Trebizond in 1461. The Ottoman monarchy was abolished in 1922.

Third Rome

In 1472, Sophia Paleologue, niece of the last Byzantine emperor, married Ivan III, Grand Duke of Moscow. Through this link, Russia claimed to be the Third Rome. The Russian monarchy was overthown in 1917.

Miscellaneous

Napoleon I claimed himself as a successor to the Romans and Charlemagne (as opposed to the French kings of the ancien regime). His empire was an attempt to mimic the Roman Empire and he was responsible for forcing the Holy Roman Empire to dissolve with the Treaty of Lunéville.

With the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th and 20th centuries, some groups had encouraged the recreation of the ancient Roman Empire. The most serious attempt was Mussolini's New Roman Empire which rested its legitimacy on geography and imitation rather than translatio imperii.