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Ronald Reagan

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Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6 1911 – June 5 2004) was the 40th President of the United States (1981–1989) and the 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975). Born in Illinois, Reagan moved to Los Angeles, California in the 1930s, where he became an actor, president of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG), and a spokesman for General Electric (GE). His start in politics occurred during his work for GE; originally a member of the Democratic Party, he switched to the Republican Party in 1962. After delivering a rousing speech in support of Barry Goldwater's presidential candidacy in 1964, he was persuaded to seek the California governorship, winning two years later and again in 1970. He was defeated in his run for the Republican presidential nomination in 1968 as well as 1976, but won both the nomination and election in 1980.

As president, Reagan implemented new political initiatives as well as economic policies, advocating a limited government and economic laissez-faire philosophy, but the extent to which these ideas were implemented is debatable. The supply side economic policies, dubbed "Reaganomics", included substantial tax cuts implemented in 1981. After surviving an assassination attempt and ordering controversial military actions in Grenada, he was re-elected in a landslide victory in 1984.

Reagan's second term was marked by the ending of the Cold War, as well as a number of administration scandals, notably the Iran-Contra Affair. The president ordered a massive military buildup in an arms race with the Soviet Union, forgoing the previous strategy of détente. He publicly portrayed the USSR as an "evil empire" and supported anti-Communist movements worldwide. Despite his rejection of détente, he negotiated with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev to shrink both countries' nuclear arsenals. Reagan left office in 1989; in 1994 the former president disclosed that he had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. He died ten years later at the age of ninety-three, and ranks highly among former U.S. presidents in terms of approval rating.

Early life

Ronald Reagan was born in an apartment above the local bank building in Tampico, Illinois on February 6, 1911 to John "Jack" Reagan and Nelle Wilson Reagan. As a boy, Reagan's father nicknamed him "Dutch", due to his "fat little Dutchman"-like appearance, and his "Dutchboy" haircut; the nickname stuck with Ronald throughout his youth. Reagan's family briefly lived in several Illinois towns, including Monmouth, Galesburg and Chicago, until 1919, when they returned to Tampico and lived above the H.C. Pitney Variety Store. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, Reagan would quip that he was "living above the store again".

According to Paul Kengor, author of God and Ronald Reagan, Reagan had a particularly strong faith in the goodness of people, which stemmed from the optimistic faith of his mother, Nelle, and the Disciples of Christ faith, which he was baptized into in 1922. For the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning.

Following the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920, the Reagans moved to Dixon; the midwestern "small universe" had a lasting impression on Ronald. He attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports, and storytelling. His first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park, near Dixon, in 1926. "I saved 77 lives," Reagan said in an interview, and mentioned that he notched a mark on a wooden log for every life he saved. After high school, Reagan attended Eureka College, where he was a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, majored in economics and sociology, and was very active in sports.

Entertainment career

Radio and film

After graduating from Eureka in 1932, Reagan worked at radio stations WOC in Davenport, Iowa, and WHO in Des Moines as an announcer for Chicago Cubs baseball games. While traveling with the Cubs in California, Reagan took a screen test in 1937 that led to a seven-year contract with Warner Brothers studios. His first screen credit was the starring role in the 1937 movie Love Is on the Air, and by the end of 1939 he had already appeared in 19 films. Before the film Santa Fe Trail in 1940, he played the role of George "The Gipper" Gipp in the film Knute Rockne, All American; from it, he acquired the lifelong nickname "the Gipper". Reagan's favorite acting role was in 1942's Kings Row, but his performance did not meet with universal approval: one reviewer felt that Reagan had made "only casual acquaintance with the [character]". Reagan also acted in Tennessee's Partner, Hellcats of the Navy, This Is the Army, Dark Victory, Bedtime for Bonzo, Cattle Queen of Montana, and The Killers (his final film) in a 1964 remake.

Military service

After completing fourteen home-study Army Extension Courses, Reagan enlisted in the Army Enlisted Reserve on April 29 1937, as a private assigned to Troop B, 322nd Cavalry at Des Moines, Iowa. He was appointed Second Lieutenant in the Officers Reserve Corps of the Cavalry on May 25 1937, and on June 18 was assigned to the 323rd Cavalry.

Reagan was ordered to active duty for the first time on April 18 1942. Due to his nearsightedness, he was classified for limited service only, which excluded him from serving overseas. His first assignment was at the San Francisco Port of Embarkation at Fort Mason, California, as a liaison officer of the Port and Transportation Office. Upon the approval of the Army Air Force (AAF), he applied for a transfer from the Cavalry to the AAF on May 15 1942, and was assigned to AAF Public Relations and subsequently to the 1st Motion Picture Unit in Culver City, California. On January 14 1943 he was promoted to First Lieutenant and was sent to the Provisional Task Force Show Unit of This Is The Army at Burbank, California. He returned to the 1st Motion Picture Unit after completing this duty and was promoted to Captain on July 22 1943.

In January 1944, Captain Reagan was ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in the opening of the sixth War Loan Drive. He was assigned to the 18th AAF Base Unit, Culver City on November 14 1944, where he remained until the end of World War II. He was recommended for promotion to Major on February 2 1945, but this recommendation was disapproved on July 17 of that year. He returned to Fort MacArthur, California, where he was separated from active duty on December 9 1945. By the end of the war, his units had produced some 400 training films for the AAF.

Television and SAG president

Reagan landed fewer film roles in the late 1950s and moved to television as the host of General Electric Theater, earning approximately $125,000 per year (About $1,000,000 in 2008 dollars), until he was fired by General Electric in 1962. His final work as a professional actor was as host and performer from 1964 to 1965 on the television series Death Valley Days.

Reagan was first elected to the Board of Directors of the Screen Actors Guild in 1941, serving as an alternate. Following World War II, he resumed service and became 3rd Vice president in 1946. The adoption of conflict-of-interest bylaws in 1947 led the SAG president and six board members to resign; Reagan was nominated in a special election for the position of president and subsequently elected. He would subsequently be chosen by the membership to seven additional one-year terms, from 1947 to 1952 and in 1959. Reagan led SAG through eventful years that were marked by labor-management disputes, the Taft-Hartley Act, House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) hearings and the Hollywood blacklist era.

In 1947, as SAG president, Reagan testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee regarding the influence of communists in the motion picture industry. Strongly opposed to communism, he reaffirmed his commitment to democratic principles, stating, "As a citizen, I would hesitate to see any political party outlawed on the basis of its political ideology. However, if it is proven that an organization is an agent of foreign power, or in any way not a legitimate political party —and I think the government is capable of proving that—then that is another matter... But at the same time I never as a citizen want to see our country become urged, by either fear or resentment of this group, that we ever compromise with any of our democratic principles through that fear or resentment."

Marriages and children

Jane Wyman

In 1938, Reagan co-starred in the film Brother Rat with actress Jane Wyman (1917–2007). They were engaged at the Chicago Theatre, and married on January 26 1940, at the Wee Kirk o' the Heather church in Glendale, California. Together they had two children, Maureen (1941–2001) and Christine (born and died June 26 1947), and adopted a third, Michael (born 1945). Reagan and Wyman divorced on June 28 1948 (finalized in 1949) following arguments about Reagan's political ambitions, making him the only U.S. president to have been divorced.

Nancy Davis

Reagan met actress Nancy Davis (born 1921) in 1949 after Davis contacted then-president of the Screen Actors Guild Reagan to help her with issues regarding her name appearing on a communist blacklist in Hollywood (Davis was mistaken for another Nancy Davis). Nancy described their meeting by saying, "I don't know if it was exactly love at first sight, but it was pretty close." They were engaged at Chasen's restaurant in Los Angeles and were married on March 4, 1952 at the Little Brown Church in the San Fernando Valley. Ronald and Nancy Reagan had two children: Patti (born 1952) and Ron (born 1958).

Observers described Ronald and Nancy Reagan's relationship as close, real, and intimate. While president and first lady, the Reagans were reported to display their affection for each other frequently, with one press secretary noting, "They never took each other for granted. They never stopped courting." He often called her "Mommy"; she called him "Ronnie". When the president was recuperating in the hospital after the assassination attempt in 1981, Nancy Reagan slept with one of his shirts to be comforted by the scent; in a letter to Mrs. Reagan, President Reagan wrote, "whatever I treasure and enjoy... all would be without meaning if I didn’t have you. In a letter to U.S. citizens written in 1994, President Reagan wrote "I have recently been told that I am one of the millions of Americans who will be afflicted with Alzheimer's disease... I only wish there was some way I could spare Nancy from this painful experience," and in 1998, while her husband was severely affected by Alzheimer's, Nancy told Vanity Fair, "Our relationship is very special. We were very much in love and still are. When I say my life began with Ronnie, well, it's true. It did. I can't imagine life without him."

Early political career

A registered Democrat and admirer of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Reagan supported the New Deal before shifting rightwards out of a desire for a more limited federal government, endorsing the presidential candidacies of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and 1956 as well as Richard Nixon in 1960. Following the election of John F. Kennedy, Reagan formally switched to the Republican Party in 1962, saying "I didn't leave the Democratic Party. The party left me." During his work for General Electric, Reagan wrote his own speeches, laboring diligently and daily upon his prose. Although he had speechwriters later in the White House, he continued editing, and even occasionally writing, many of his speeches.

Two years after switching parties, Reagan joined the campaign of conservative presidential contender Barry Goldwater. Speaking on Goldwater's behalf, Reagan revealed his ideological motivation in a famed speech given on October 27, 1964: "The Founding Fathers knew a government can't control the economy without controlling people. And they knew when a government sets out to do that, it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose. So we have come to a time for choosing. The address soon became known as the "Time for Choosing" speech, and is considered the speech that launched Reagan's political career.

Governor of California, 1967–1975

California Republicans were impressed with Reagan's political views and charisma after his "Time for Choosing" speech, and nominated him for Governor of California in 1966. In Reagan's campaign, he emphasized two main themes: "to send the welfare bums back to work", and in reference to burgeoning anti-war and anti-establishment student protests at the University of California at Berkeley, "to clean up the mess at Berkeley". He was elected, defeating two-term governor Edmund G. "Pat" Brown, and was sworn in on January 3 1967. In his first term, he froze government hiring and approved tax hikes to balance the budget.

Shortly after the beginning of his term, Reagan tested the presidential waters in 1968 as part of a "Stop Nixon" movement, hoping to cut into Nixon's Southern support and be a compromise candidate if neither Nixon nor second-place Nelson Rockefeller received enough delegates to win on the first ballot at the Republican convention. However, by the time of the convention Nixon had 692 delegate votes, 25 more than he needed to secure the nomination, followed by Rockefeller with Reagan in third place.

Reagan was involved in high-profile conflicts with the protest movements of the era. On May 15, 1969, during the People's Park protests at UC Berkeley, Reagan sent the California Highway Patrol and other officers to quell the protests. During these protests, the officers resorted to using firearms, shooting and killing a 25-year-old San Jose man and injuring hundreds of others, in an incident that became known as "Bloody Thursday". Reagan then called out 2,200 state National Guard troops to occupy the city of Berkeley for two weeks in order to crack down on the protesters.

Early in 1967, the national debate on abortion was beginning. Democratic California state senator Anthony Beilenson introduced the "Therapeutic Abortion Act", in an effort to reduce the number of "back-room abortions" performed in California. The State Legislature sent the bill to Reagan's desk where, after many days of indecision, he signed it. About two million abortions would be performed as a result, most because of a provision in the bill allowing abortions for the well-being of the mother. Reagan had been in office for only four months when he signed the bill, and stated that had he been more experienced as governor, it would not have been signed. After he recognized what he called the "consequences" of the bill, he announced that he was pro-life. He maintained that position later in his political career, Ronald Reagan#Abortion and the Conscience of the Nation.

Reagan was re-elected in 1970, defeating "Big Daddy" Jesse Unruh, but chose not to seek a third term. One of Reagan's greatest frustrations in office concerned capital punishment, which he strongly supported. His efforts to enforce the state's laws in this area were thwarted when the Supreme Court of California issued its People v. Anderson decision, which invalidated all death sentences issued in California prior to 1972, though the decision was later overturned by a constitutional amendment. The only execution during Reagan's governorship was on April 12, 1967, when Aaron Mitchell's sentence was carried out by the state in San Quentin's gas chamber.

Reagan's terms as governor helped to shape the policies he would pursue in his later political career as president. By campaigning on a platform of sending "the welfare bums back to work", he spoke out against the idea of the welfare state. He also strongly advocated the Republican ideal of less government regulation of the economy, including that of undue federal taxation.

1976 presidential campaign

In 1976, Reagan challenged incumbent President Gerald Ford in a bid to become the Republican Party's candidate for president. Reagan soon established himself as the conservative candidate; like-minded organizations such as the American Conservative Union became the key components of his political base, while President Ford was considered a more moderate Republican. He relied on a strategy crafted by campaign manager John Sears of winning a few primaries early to seriously damage the lift-off of Ford's campaign, such as his victories in North Carolina, Texas, and California, but the strategy disintegrated. Reagan ended up losing New Hampshire and later Florida.

As the party's 1976 convention in Kansas City, Missouri neared, Ford appeared close to victory. Acknowledging his party's moderate wing, Reagan chose moderate Republican Senator Richard Schweiker of Pennsylvania as his running mate. Nonetheless, Ford narrowly won, with 1,187 delegates to Reagan's 1,070.

Reagan's concession speech emphasized the dangers of nuclear war and the threat posed by the Soviet Union. Although he lost the nomination, he received 307 write-in votes in New Hampshire, 388 votes as an Independent on Wyoming's ballot, and a single electoral vote from a Washington State "faithless elector" in the November election. Ford went on to lose the 1976 presidential election to the Democratic challenger Jimmy Carter.

1980 presidential campaign

The 1980 presidential campaign was conducted during domestic concerns as well as the ongoing Iran hostage crisis. Reagan's campaign began with allegations of racism, for he announced his presidential run in Philadelphia, Mississippi, the scene of the June 21, 1964 murder of three civil rights workers. His campaign stressed some of his fundamental principles: lower taxes to stimulate the economy, less government interference in peoples' lives, states' rights, and a strong national defense.

After receiving the Republican nomination, Reagan challenged incumbent President Jimmy Carter. His showing in the televised debates boosted his campaign, and he selected one of his primary opponents, George H.W. Bush, to be his running mate. Reagan won the election, carrying 44 states with 489 electoral votes to 49 electoral votes for Carter (representing six states and Washington, D.C.). Reagan won 50.7% of the popular vote while Carter took 41%, and Independent John B. Anderson (a liberal Republican) received 6.7%. Republicans captured the Senate for the first time since 1952, and gained 34 House seats, but the Democrats retained a majority.

Presidency, 1981–1989

During his Presidency, Ronald Reagan pursued policies that reflected his personal belief in individual freedom, brought changes domestically, both to the U.S. economy and expanded military, and contributed to the end of the Cold War. The "Reagan Revolution", proponents claimed, would reinvigorate American morale, and reduce the people's reliance upon government. As president, Reagan kept a series of diaries in which he commented about daily occurrences of his presidency and his views on current issues, frequently mentioning his wife, Nancy. The diaries were published in May 2007 into the bestselling book, The Reagan Diaries.

First term, 1981–1985

In his first inaugural address on January 20, 1981, which Reagan himself wrote, he addressed the country's economic malaise arguing: "Government is not the solution to our problems; government is the problem." To date, Reagan is the oldest man elected to the office of the presidency.

The Reagan Presidency began in a dramatic manner: as Reagan was giving his inaugural address, 52 U.S. hostages, held by Iran for 444 days were set free.

Assassination attempt

On March 30, 1981, Reagan, his press secretary James Brady, and two others were struck by gunfire from a would-be assassin, John Hinckley, Jr. Missing Reagan’s heart by less than one inch the bullet instead pierced his left lung, causing it to collapse. In the operating room, Reagan joked to the surgeons, "I hope you're all Republicans!" Though they were not, Dr. Joseph Giordano replied, "Today, Mr. President, we're all Republicans," and when Nancy Reagan came to see him he famously told her, "Honey, I forgot to duck" (using defeated boxer Jack Dempsey's quip). Reagan was released from the hospital on April 11.

Air traffic controllers' strike

Only a short time into his administration Federal air traffic controllers went on strike, violating a regulation prohibiting Government unions from striking. Declaring the situation an emergency as described in the 1947 Taft Hartley Act, Reagan held a press conference in the White House Rose Garden, where he stated that if the air traffic controllers "do not report for work within 48 hours, they have forfeited their jobs and will be terminated". On August 3, 1981, Reagan fired 11,345 striking air traffic controllers who had ignored his order to return to work, breaking the union.

"Reaganomics" and the economy

When Reagan entered office the United States inflation rate stood at 11.83% and unemployment at 7.1%. Reagan implemented policies based on supply-side economics and advocated a laissez-faire philosophy, seeking to stimulate the economy with large, across-the-board tax cuts. He aimed to reduce the growth of domestic government spending, cut back on excess regulation, and instituted a sound currency policy which would end inflation; his approach was a departure from his immediate predecessors. The economic policy, dubbed "Reaganomics", was the subject of debate with supporters pointing to improvements in certain key economic indicators as evidence of success, and critics pointing to large increases in federal budget deficits and the national debt. His policy of "peace through strength" (also described as "firm but fair") resulted in a record peacetime defense buildup including a 40% real increase in defense spending between 1981 and 1985.

During Reagan's presidential tenure federal income tax rates were lowered significantly, although FICA payroll tax rates increased to maintain Social Security funding. Real gross domestic product (GDP) growth recovered strongly after the 1982 recession and grew during Reagan's eight years in office at an annual rate of 3.4% per year. Unemployment peaked at 10.8% percent in December 1982--higher than any time since the Great Depression--then dropped during the rest of Reagan's presidency. Reaganomics produced 16 million jobs and inflation significantly decreased. The net effect of all Reagan-era tax bills resulted in a 1% decrease in government revenues.

The policies proposed that economic growth would occur when marginal tax rates were low enough to spur investment, which would then lead to increased economic growth, higher employment and wages. Critics labeled this "trickle-down economics" — the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will create a "trickle-down" effect to the poor. Questions arose of whether Reagan's policies benefitted the wealthy more than those living in poverty, and Reagan was seen as indifferent to many poor and minority citizens.

The administration's stance toward the Savings and Loan industry contributed to the Savings and Loan crisis. It is also suggested, by a minority of Reaganomics critics, that the policies partially influenced the stock market crash of 1987, but there is no consensus regarding a single source for the crash. In order to cover newly-spawned federal budget deficits, the United States borrowed heavily both domestically and abroad, raising the national debt from $700 billion to $3 trillion. Reagan described the new debt as the "greatest disappointment" of his presidency.

He reappointed Paul Volcker as Chairman of the Federal Reserve, and in 1987 appointed monetarist Alan Greenspan to succeed him. Some economists, such as Nobel Prize winners Milton Friedman and Robert A. Mundell, argue that Reagan's tax policies invigorated America's economy and contributed to the economic boom of the 1990s. Other economists, such as Nobel Prize winner Robert Solow, argue that the deficits were a major reason why Reagan's successor, George H.W. Bush, reneged on a campaign promise and raised taxes.

Judiciary

During his 1980 campaign, Reagan pledged that, if given the opportunity, he would appoint the first female Supreme Court Justice. That opportunity came in his first year in office when he nominated Sandra Day O'Connor to fill the vacancy created by the retirement of Justice Potter Stewart. In his second term, Reagan elevated William Rehnquist to succeed Warren Burger as Chief Justice, and named Antonin Scalia to fill the vacant seat. However, in 1987, Reagan lost a significant political battle when the Senate rejected the nomination of Robert Bork, but Anthony Kennedy was eventually confirmed in his place.

Lebanon and Grenada, 1983

American peacekeeping forces in Beirut, a part of a multinational force (MNF) during the Lebanese Civil War, were attacked on October 23 1983. The Beirut barracks bombing, in which 241 American servicemen were killed by suicide bombers, was the deadliest single-day death toll for the United States Marine Corps since the Battle of Iwo Jima, and the deadliest single-day death toll for the United States military since the first day of the Tet offensive. Reagan called the attack "despicable", pledged to keep a military force in Lebanon, and planned to target the Sheik Abdullah barracks in Baalbek, Lebanon, which housed Iranian Revolutionary Guards believed to be training Hezbollah fighters, but the mission was later aborted by Defense Secretary Caspar Weinberger. Besides a few shellings, there was no serious American retaliation, and the Marines were moved offshore where they could not be targeted. On February 7 1984, President Reagan ordered the Marines to begin withdrawal from Lebanon. This was completed on February 26: the rest of the MNF was withdrawn by April.

Two days later, U.S. forces invaded Grenada, where a 1979 coup d'état had established a Marxist-Leninist government aligned with the Soviet Union and Cuba. The Grenadan government began military expansion and construction of an international airport with Cuban assistance. On October 13 1983, a faction led by Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard seized power. A formal appeal from the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) led to the intervention of U.S. forces; President Reagan also cited the regional threat posed by a Soviet-Cuban military build-up in the Caribbean and concern for the safety of several hundred American medical students at St. George's University as adequate reasons to invade. On October 25, in the first major operation conducted by the U.S. military since the Vietnam War, several days of fighting commenced, and led to U.S. victory, with 19 American fatalities and 116 wounded American soldiers. In mid-December, after a new government was appointed by the Governor-General, U.S. forces withdrew.

1984 presidential campaign

Reagan accepted the Republican nomination in Dallas, Texas, on a wave of positive feeling bolstered by the recovering economy and the dominating performance by the U.S. athletes at the Los Angeles Olympics that summer. He became the first American president to open a summer Olympic Games held in the United States.

Reagan's opponent in the 1984 presidential election was former Vice President Walter Mondale. With questions about Reagan's age, and a weak performance in the first presidential debate, many wondered if he was up to the task of being president for another term. Reagan rebounded in the second debate, and confronted questions about his age, stating, "I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience," which generated applause and laughter from members of the audience, and even from Mondale himself.

In the 1984 presidential election, Reagan was re-elected, winning 49 of 50 states. The president's landslide victory saw Mondale carry only his home state of Minnesota (by 3800 votes) and the District of Columbia. Reagan won a record 525 electoral votes total (of 538 possible), and received 58.8% of the popular vote to Mondale's 40.6%.

Second term, 1985–1989

Reagan was sworn in as president for the second time on January 20, 1985, in a private ceremony at the White House. The public ceremony took place in the Capitol Rotunda the next day, because January 20 fell on a Sunday, and thus no public celebration was held. January 21 was one of the coldest days on record in Washington, D.C., and due to the low temperatures and large snowfall the night before, inaugural celebrations were held inside the Capitol.

On July 13, 1985, Reagan underwent surgery to remove polyps from his colon, causing the first-ever invocation of the acting president clause of the 25th Amendment, and on January 5, 1987, Reagan underwent surgery for prostate cancer which caused further worries about his health. At the time, the president was 76 years old.

In 1985, Reagan visited a German military cemetery in Bitburg, Germany to lay a wreath with West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, but it was found that the cemetery held the graves of 49 members of the Waffen-SS. In advance of the visit, many prominent U.S. government officials, veterans, Jewish leaders, Holocaust survivors, 95 Republican and 215 Democratic members of Congress, even First Lady Nancy Reagan protested and called on Reagan to cancel the visit, but the president argued that it would be wrong to back down on a promise he had made to Chancellor Kohl. Reagan issued a statement that called the Nazi soldiers buried in that cemetery "victims" and some say equated them with victims of the Holocaust, but Pat Buchanan, Director of Communications under Reagan, argues: "President Reagan never equated SS troops and camp victims. He equated the teenage boys Hitler put in uniform and sent to certain death at war's end with concentration camp victims. In the end, Reagan attended the ceremony where two military generals laid the wreath, as was customary. In 1983, he told prominent Jews — notably Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir of Israel, Simon Wiesenthal, and Rabbi Marvin Hier of Los Angeles — of his personal experience vis-à-vis the Holocaust, saying "I was there," and that he had assisted at the liberation of Nazi death camps. In reality, he was in a film unit in Hollywood that processed raw footage it received from Europe for newsreels, but was not in Europe during the war.

The Reagan administration was criticized for its slow response to the HIV-AIDS epidemic, and for the president's controversial refusal to say the term "AIDS" in public for several years, until the illness of movie star and national icon Rock Hudson became public news in July 1985. By that time, over 10,000 Americans had been diagnosed with AIDS, and over 6,000 had died.

War on Drugs

Midway into his second term, Reagan declared more militant policies in the "War on Drugs". He said that "drugs were menacing our society" and promised to fight for drug-free schools and workplaces, expanded drug treatment, stronger law enforcement and drug interdiction efforts, and greater public awareness. On October 27, 1986, President Reagan signed a drug enforcement bill into law that budgeted $1.7 billion dollars to fund the War on Drugs and specified a mandatory minimum penalty for drug offenses.

The bill was criticized for promoting significant racial disparities in the prison population, because of the differences in sentencing for crack versus powder cocaine. Critics also charged that the administration's policies did little to actually reduce the availability of drugs or crime on the street, while resulting in a great financial and human cost for American society. Defenders of the effort point to success in reducing rates of adolescent drug use.

First Lady Nancy Reagan made the War on Drugs one of her main priorities by founding the "Just Say No" drug awareness campaign, which aimed to discourage children and teenagers from engaging in recreational drug use by offering various ways of saying "no". Mrs. Reagan traveled to 65 cities in 33 states, raising awareness about the dangers of drugs and alcohol.

Immigration

In 1986, Reagan signed the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA). The act made it illegal to knowingly hire or recruit illegal immigrants, required employers to attest to their employees' immigration status, and granted amnesty to approximately 3 million illegal immigrants who entered the United States prior to January 1, 1982 and lived there continuously. Critics of the act claim that its laws subjecting employers to sanctions were without teeth and that it failed to stem illegal immigration. Upon signing the act at a ceremony held beside the newly refurbished Statue of Liberty, Reagan said, "The legalization provisions in this act will go far to improve the lives of a class of individuals who now must hide in the shadows, without access to many of the benefits of a free and open society. Very soon many of these men and women will be able to step into the sunlight and, ultimately, if they choose, they may become Americans.

Iran-Contra Affair

In 1986, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) found the Reagan Administration to have illegally attacked Nicaraguan territory, funded in part by selling arms to Iran to fund the Contra insurgents, which had been specifically outlawed by an act of Congress. The Iran-Contra Affair became the largest political scandal in the United States during the 1980s. President Reagan professed ignorance of the plot's existence and quickly called for an Independent Counsel to investigate, but while the arms sales and hostage releases were going on, Reagan allegedly signed a presidential finding authorizing the actions after they had already begun. The ICJ, whose jurisdiction to decide the case was disputed, ruled that the U.S. had violated international law in Nicaragua due to its treaty obligations and the customary obligations of international law not to intervene in the affairs of other states.

Reagan appointed two Republicans and one Democrat (John Tower, Brent Scowcroft and Edmund Muskie, known as the "Tower Commission") to investigate the scandal. The commission could not find direct evidence that Reagan had prior knowledge of the program, but criticized him heavily for his disengagement from managing his staff, thus making the diversion of funds to the Contras possible. A separate report by Congress concluded that "If the president did not know what his national security advisers were doing, he should have." Reagan's popularity declined from 67 percent to 46 percent in less than a week, the greatest and quickest decline ever for a president.

Fourteen individuals who were directly involved in the illegal activity were indicted, resulting in eleven convictions (both plea agreements and trial convictions). Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger was indicted for perjury, but received a pardon from then-President George H.W. Bush during the last month of his presidency. At the same time, President Bush pardoned five others, four of whom had already pleaded guilty or had been convicted. In 2006, a survey of 37 presidential historians ranked "Ronald Reagan’s involvement in the Iran-Contra affair" as the ninth worst mistake by a U.S. president.

Many Central Americans criticize Reagan for his support of the Contras, saying he was an anti-communist zealot, blinded to human rights abuses, while many others say he "saved Central America". Daniel Ortega, Sandinistan president of Nicaragua from 1979 to 1990, said that he hoped God would forgive Reagan for his "dirty war against Nicaragua".

Cold War

Reagan escalated the Cold War, accelerating a reversal from the policy of détente which began in 1979 following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The Reagan Administration implemented new policies towards the Soviet Union: reviving the B-1 bomber program that had been canceled by the Carter administration, and producing the MX "Peacekeeper" missile. In response to Soviet deployment of the SS-20, Reagan oversaw NATO's deployment of the Pershing II missile in West Germany.

One of Reagan's more controversial proposals was the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), a defense project that would have used ground and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. Reagan believed that this defense shield could make nuclear war impossible, but disbelief that the technology could ever work led opponents to dub SDI "Star Wars" and argue that the technological objective was unattainable. The Soviets became concerned about the possible effects SDI would have, and leader Yuri Andropov said it would put "the entire world in jeopardy". For those reasons, David Gergen, former aide to President Reagan, believes that in retrospect, SDI hastened the end of the Cold War.

In a famous address on June 8, 1982 to the British Parliament, Reagan called the Soviet Union an "Evil Empire" that would be consigned to the "ash heap of history". On March 3, 1983, he predicted that communism would collapse, stating, "communism is another sad, bizarre chapter in human history whose last pages even now are being written." After Soviet fighters downed Korean Air Lines Flight 007 on September 1, 1983, Reagan labeled the act a "massacre" and declared that the Soviets had turned "against the world and the moral precepts which guide human relations among people everywhere." The Reagan administration responded to the incident by suspending all Soviet passenger air service to the United States, and dropped several agreements being negotiated with the Soviets, hurting them financially.

Reagan's foreign policies were criticized variously as aggressive, imperialistic, and known to some as "warmongering." These events occurred before a reformer, Mikhail Gorbachev, rose to power in the Soviet Union in 1985. To confront the USSR's serious economic problems, Gorbachev implemented new policies for openness and reform: glasnost and perestroika.

Reagan displayed humor throughout his presidency, with one notable statement regarding the Cold War. As a sound check prior to his weekly radio address in August 1984, Reagan made the following gaffe as a way to test the microphone: "My fellow Americans, I'm pleased to tell you today that I've signed legislation that will outlaw Russia forever. We begin bombing in five minutes.

End of the Cold War

By the early 1980s, Moscow had built up a military that had surpassed that of the United States. Previously, the United States had relied on the qualitative superiority of its weapons to essentially frighten the Soviets, but with Soviet technological advances in the 1980s, the gap between the two nations was narrowed. With the Soviet military buildup came large budget deficits; as a result, Gorbachev offered major concessions to the United States on the levels of conventional forces, nuclear weapons, and policy in Eastern Europe.

Ronald Reagan recognized the change in the direction of the Soviet leadership with Gorbachev, and shifted to diplomacy, with a view to encourage the Soviet Leader to go further with his reforms. Gorbachev agreed to meet Reagan in four summit conferences around the world: the first in Geneva, Switzerland, the second in Reykjavík, Iceland, the third held in Washington, D.C., along with the fourth summit in Moscow, Russia. Reagan believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to allow for more democracy and free speech, this would lead to reform and the end of Communism.

Speaking at the Berlin Wall, on June 12, 1987, Reagan Ronald Reagan's Berlin Wall Speech:

General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization: Come here to this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!

When Gorbachev visited Washington, D.C. for the third summit in 1987, he and Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty at the White House (they finalized it a year later), which eliminated an entire class of nuclear weapons.

When Reagan visited Moscow for the fourth summit in 1988, he was viewed as a celebrity by Russians. A journalist asked the president if he still considered the Soviet Union the evil empire. "No," he replied, "I was talking about another time, another era. At Gorbachev’s request, Reagan gave a speech on free markets at the Moscow State University.

In his autobiography An American Life, Reagan expressed his optimism about the new direction that they charted, his warm feelings for Gorbachev, and his concern for Gorbachev's safety because he pushed reforms so hard: "I was concerned for his safety," Reagan wrote. "I've still worried about him. How hard and fast can he push reforms without risking his life? The Berlin Wall was torn down starting in 1989 and two years later the Soviet Union collapsed.

Post-presidential years, 1989–2004

For the first five years after the end of Reagan's presidency in 1989, the Reagans traveled from their Bel Air home to the Reagan Ranch in Santa Barbara every few months. They regularly attended Bel Air Presbyterian Church and occasionally made appearances on behalf of the Republican Party, including a well-received speech at the 1992 Republican National Convention. He publicly spoke in favor of a line-item veto, a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget, and the repeal of the 22nd Amendment, which prohibits a president from serving more than two terms. Reagan's final public speech was on February 3, 1994, during a tribute in Washington, D.C., and his last major public appearance was at the funeral of fellow Republican President Richard Nixon on April 27, 1994.

In 1992, President Reagan established the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award with the Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation. The award, the highest given by the Reagan Foundation, is presented on a regular basis to one person in the world who has "made monumental and lasting contributions to the cause of freedom worldwide" and who "embodies President Reagan's lifelong belief that one man or woman truly can make a difference." The first recipient was former leader of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, and the most recent (as of February 2007) was former United States President George H.W. Bush. When President Reagan was diagnosed with Alzheimer's Disease, Nancy Reagan took on the role of presenting the award on behalf of her husband.

Presidential Library and Museum

On November 4, 1991, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library was dedicated and opened to the public. At the dedication ceremonies, five presidents were all in attendance, as well as six first ladies, marking the first time five presidents were in the same location together. The library is the largest of the presidential libraries; notable exhibits include ones on the Reagan's ranch, a full-scale replica of the Oval Office, the limousine that President and Mrs. Reagan used while in the White House, and the actual Boeing 707, Air Force One, that served President Reagan during his eight years in office. On June 11, 2004, after a state funeral in Washington, D.C., President Reagan was interred on the property, and on May 3, 2007, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation hosted the first 2008 Republican presidential candidates debate at the Library, with Mrs. Reagan in attendance.

Alzheimer's disease

In July 1989, the Reagans took a trip to Mexico, where Reagan was thrown off a horse and taken to a hospital for tests. The Reagans returned to the U.S. and visited the Mayo Clinic where they were told President Reagan had a head concussion and a subdural hematoma, and was subsequently operated on. Doctors believe that is what hastened the onset of Alzheimer's disease, an incurable neurological disorder which ultimately causes brain cells to die, and something Reagan was diagnosed with in 1994. At the age of 83, he informed the nation via a hand-written letter, writing, "I now begin the journey that will lead me into the sunset of my life. I know that for America there will always be a bright dawn ahead. Thank you, my friends. May God always bless you.

After his diagnosis, there was considerable speculation over whether Reagan had demonstrated symptoms of mental degeneration while in office. Former CBS White House Press Corps Lesley Stahl recalls in her book Reporting Live, an "unsettling" interview with the president where "a vacant Reagan barely seemed to realize anyone else was in the room", and that before he "reemerged into alertness" she recalls that "I had come that close to reporting that Reagan was senile. Reagan would also encounter occasional difficulty recalling names and titles, notably while meeting with Japanese Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone wherein he repeatedly referred to his Vice President as "Prime Minister Bush. Reagan's doctors, however, note that he only began exhibiting overt symptoms of the illness in late 1992, several years after he had left office. His former staff also defended him; Chief of Staff James Baker considered "ludicrous" the idea of Reagan sleeping during cabinet meetings.

As the years went on, the disease slowly destroyed his mental capacity and his family decided that he would live in quiet isolation. On February 6, 2001, Reagan reached the age of 90, becoming the third former president to do so (the other two being John Adams and Herbert Hoover). Reagan's public appearances became much less frequent with the progression of the disease. Nancy Reagan told CNN's Larry King that very few visitors were allowed to see her husband because she felt that "Ronnie would want people to remember him as he was. Since his diagnosis and death, Mrs. Reagan has become a stem-cell research advocate, urging Congress and President George W. Bush to support federal funding for embryonic stem-cell research, something President Bush opposes. Mrs. Reagan has said that she believes that it could lead to a cure for Alzheimer's.

Death

Reagan died at his home in Bel-Air, California on June 5, 2004. A short time after his death, Nancy Reagan released a statement saying: "My family and I would like the world to know that President Ronald Reagan has passed away after 10 years of Alzheimer's Disease at 93 years of age. We appreciate everyone's prayers." President George W. Bush declared June 11 a National Day of Mourning, and Tributes by world leaders on the death of Ronald Reagan came in from around the world. Reagan's body was taken to the Kingsley and Gates Funeral Home in Santa Monica, California later in the day, where well-wishers paid tribute by laying flowers and American flags in the grass. On June 7, his body was removed and taken to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, where a brief family funeral service was held. His body lay in repose in the Library lobby until June 9; over 100,000 people viewed the coffin.

On June 9, Reagan's body was flown to Washington D.C. where he became the tenth United States president to lie in state. In the thirty-four hours that it lay there, 104,684 people filed past the coffin.

On June 11, a state funeral was conducted in the Washington National Cathedral, and presided over by President George W. Bush. Eulogies were given by former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, and both Presidents Bush. Also in attendance were Mikhail Gorbachev, and many world leaders, including British Prime Minister Tony Blair, German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, and interim presidents Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan, and Ghazi al-Yawer of Iraq.

After the funeral service, the Reagan entourage was flown back to California — to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library — where another service was held, and President Reagan was interred. He is the second longest-lived president in U.S. history and was the first United States president to die in the 21st century. His was the first state funeral in the United States since that of President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973.

His burial site is inscribed with the words he delivered at the opening of the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library:

I know in my heart that man is good, that what is right will always eventually triumph and that there is purpose and worth to each and every life.

Legacy

Reagan's legacy is mixed, with supporters pointing to a more efficient and prosperous economy and a peaceful end to the Cold War. Critics argue that his economic policies caused huge budget deficits, quadrupling the United States national debt, and that the Iran-Contra affair lowered American credibility.

Edwin J. Feulner, Ph.D., President of the Heritage Foundation said that Reagan "helped create a safer, freer world" and said of his economic policies: "He took an America suffering from 'malaise'... and made its citizens believe again in their destiny. However, Mark Weisbrot, co-Director of the Center for Economic and Policy Research, said that Reagan's "economic policies were mostly a failure", and Howard Kurtz of The Washington Post stated that Reagan was "a far more controversial figure in his time than the largely gushing obits on television would suggest".

Cold War

The Cold War was a major political and economic endeavor for over four decades, but the confrontation and depleted relations between the two superpowers decreased dramatically by the end of Reagan's presidency. The significance of Reagan's role in ending the Cold War has spurred contentious and opinionated debate. That Reagan had some role in contributing to the downfall of the Soviet Union is collectively agreed, but the extent of this role is continuously debated. It was Reagan's defense policies, hard line rhetoric against the Soviet Union and Communism, as well as summits with General Secretary Gorbachev that played his part in ending the War.

He stood out among post-World War II presidents as being convinced that the Soviet Union could be defeated rather than simply negotiated with, but his strong rhetoric toward the nation had mixed effects; Jeffery W. Knopf, Ph.D. observes that being labeled "evil" probably made no difference to the Soviets but gave encouragement to the East-European citizens opposed to communism. It is also argued that Reagan had little or no effect on the end of the Cold War; that communism's internal weakness had become apparent, and the Soviet Union would have collapsed in the end regardless of who was in power. President Harry Truman's policy of containment is also regarded as a force behind the fall of communism, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined the Soviet system itself.

General Secretary Gorbachev said of his former rival's Cold War role: "[He was] a man who was instrumental in bringing about the end of the Cold War," but labeled him as "a hawk" in the 1980s. Gorbachev does not acknowledge a win or loss in the war, but rather a peaceful end; he said he was not intimidated by Reagan's harsh rhetoric. Margaret Thatcher, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, said of Reagan, "he warned that the Soviet Union had an insatiable drive for military power... but he also sensed it was being eaten away by systemic failures impossible to reform. She also stated, "Ronald Reagan had a higher claim than any other leader to have won the Cold War for liberty and he did it without a shot being fired. Said Brian Mulroney, former Prime Minister of Canada: "He enters history as a strong and dramatic player [in the Cold War]. Former President Lech Wałęsa of Poland said of him, "Reagan was one of the world leaders who made a major contribution to communism's collapse.

Republican party

Since leaving office, Reagan has become an iconic influence within the Republican party. His policies and beliefs have been frequently invoked by Republican presidential candidates following his presidency. The current 2008 Republican presidential candidates are no exception, for they frequently aimed to liken themselves to him during the primary debates, even imitating his campaign stategies; Democrat Barack Obama compared himself to Reagan as well. It is argued, however, that none of the candidates resemble Reagan. His daughter Patti Davis quipped, "Where is Lloyd Bentsen when you need him? 'I knew Ronald Reagan... senator (or governor), you're no Ronald Reagan.'" The Economist publication argues that enough of the candidates believe in Reagan's "conservative realignment", however, to potentially continue it.

Ronald Reagan's Approval Ratings
Date Event Approval (%) Disapproval (%)
March 30 1981 Shot by Hinckley 73 19
January 22 1983 High unemployment 42 54
April 26 1986 Libya bombing 70 26
February 26 1987 Iran-Contra affair 44 51
January 20 1989 End of presidency 64
n/a Career Average 57 39
July 30 2001 (Retrospective) 64 27

Popularity

Reagan did not have the highest approval ratings as president, but his popularity has increased since 1989. A Gallup Organization February 2001 poll asked respondents to name the greatest president in U.S. history; Reagan came in first, capturing 18% of the vote. In February 2007, another Gallup poll ranked him as number two with 16% of the vote after Abraham Lincoln. He ranked third with a 72% approval rating in a Rasmussen Reports July 2007 poll on presidents who served after World War II, fifth in an ABC 2000 poll of the public, and ninth in another Rasmussen 2007 poll of Americans. In a Siena College survey of over 200 historians, however, Reagan ranked sixteenth out of 42.

Reagan's ability to connect with the American people earned him the laudatory moniker "The Great Communicator. Of it, Reagan said "I won the nickname the great communicator. But I never thought it was my style that made a difference — it was the content. I wasn't a great communicator, but I communicated great things. Reagan earned the nickname "the Teflon President" as well, which meant that public perceptions of him were not tarnished by the negative aspects of his administration. According to Congresswoman Patricia Schroeder and reporter Howard Kurtz, the epithet referred to Reagan's ability to "do almost anything [wrong] and not get blamed for it.

Honors

Reagan received a number of awards in his pre- and post-presidential years. After he was elected president, Reagan received a lifetime gold membership in the Screen Actors Guild, as well as the United States Military Academy's Sylvanus Thayer Award.

Reagan received an honorary British knighthood, The Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in 1989. This entitled him to the use of the post-nominal letters GCB, but did not entitle him to be known as "Sir Ronald Reagan." Only two American presidents have received the honor — Reagan and George H.W. Bush. Reagan was also named an honorary Fellow of Keble College, Oxford. Japan awarded him the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum in 1989; he is the only American president to have received the award.

On January 18, 1993, Reagan's former Vice-President and sitting President George H.W. Bush awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest honor that the United States can bestow. Reagan was also awarded the Republican Senatorial Medal of Freedom, the highest honor bestowed by Republican members of the Senate.

On Reagan's 87th birthday, in 1998, Washington National Airport was renamed Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport by a bill signed into law by President Clinton. Three years later, the USS Ronald Reagan was christened by Nancy Reagan and the United States Navy. It is one of few Navy ships christened in honor of a living person, and the first aircraft carrier to be named in honor of a living former president. Also in 1998, the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center was dedicated in Washington, D.C. Reagan was among 18 included in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th Century, from a poll conducted of the American people in 1999.

Congress authorized the creation of the Ronald Reagan Boyhood Home National Historic Site in Dixon, Illinois in 2002, pending federal purchase of the property. On May 16 of that year, Nancy Reagan accepted the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian honor bestowed by Congress, on behalf of the president and herself.

The United States Postal Service issued a President Ronald Reagan commemorative postage stamp in 2005. On May 14, CNN, along with the editors of Time magazine, named him the "most fascinating person" of the network's first 25 years; Time named Reagan one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century as well. The Discovery Channel asked its viewers to vote for The Greatest American in an unscientific poll on June 26, 2005; Reagan received the honorary title.

In 2006, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Reagan into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women, and the Arts. The following year, Polish President Lech Kaczyński posthumously awarded Reagan the highest Polish distinction, the Order of the White Eagle, saying that Reagan inspired the Polish people to work for change and helped to unseat the repressive communist regime; Kaczyński said it “would not have been possible if it was not for the tough-mindedness, determination, and feeling of mission of President Ronald Reagan. Reagan backed the nation of Poland throughout his presidency, supporting the anti-communist Solidarity movement, along with Pope John Paul II.

Footnotes

References

  • Appleby, Joyce; Alan Brinkley, James M. McPherson The American Journey. Woodland Hills, California: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. 0078241294.
  • Bennett, James. (1987) Control of Information in the United States. Westport, Connecticut: Meckler Corporation.
  • Beschloss, Michael (2007). Presidential Courage: Brave Leaders and How they Changed America 1789–1989. Simon & Schuster.
  • Cannon, Lou (2000). President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime. New York: Public Affairs.
  • Cannon, Lou; Michael Beschloss (2001). Ronald Reagan: The Presidential Portfolio: A History Illustrated from the Collection of the Ronald Reagan Library and Museum. PublicAffairs.
  • Conason, Joe (2003). Big Lies. New York: Thomas Dunne Books.
  • Curry, Richard. (1992) Thought Control and Repression in the Reagan-Bush Era. Los Angeles, California: First Amendment Foundation.
  • Diggins, John Patrick (2007). Ronald Reagan: Fate, Freedom, and the Making of History. New York: W. W. Norton.
  • Fischer, Klaus (2006). America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s. London: Continuum.
  • Freidel, Frank; Hugh Sidey (1995). The Presidents of the United States of America. Washington, D.C.: White House Historical Association.
  • Gaddis, John Lewis (2005). The Cold War: A New History. The Penguin Press.
  • Karaagac, John Ronald Reagan and Conservative Reformism. Lexington Books.
  • LaFeber, Walter America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–1971. New York: Wiley.
  • Matlock, Jack (2004). Reagan and Gorbachev: How the Cold War Ended. New York: Random House.
  • Morris, Edmund (1999). Dutch: A Memoir of Ronald Reagan. Random House. includes fictional material
  • Murray, Robert K. & Blessing, Tim H. (1993). Greatness in the White House. Penn State Press.
  • Reagan, Nancy (2002). I Love You, Ronnie: The Letters of Ronald Reagan to Nancy Reagan. United States: Random House.
  • Reagan, Nancy (1989). My Turn: The Memoirs of Nancy Reagan. New York: Random House.
  • Reagan, Ronald (1990). An American Life. New York: Simon and Schuster.
  • Reeves, Richard (2005). President Reagan: The Triumph of Imagination. New York: Simon & Schuster.
  • Regan, Donald (1988). For the Record: From Wall Street to Washington. New York: Harcourt.
  • Walsh, Kenneth (1997). Ronald Reagan. New York: Random House Value Publishing, Inc..
  • Wills, Garry (1987). Reagan's America: Innocents at Home. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.

Further reading

External links



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