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Roman Catholic Church

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The Roman Catholic Church, often referred to as the Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, representing over half of all Christians and one sixth of the world's population. It is made up of one Western or Latin and 22 Eastern Catholic autonomous particular churches, and divided into 2,782 jurisdictional areas around the world. These churches look to the Bishop of Rome (commonly called the pope), either alone or together with the College of Bishops, as their highest visible authority in matters of faith, morals, and church governance. The reigning pope is Pope Benedict XVI. The church community consists of the ordained ministries of bishops, priests, and deacons; and the laity, nuns, friars, and monks of whom only monks or friars who serve as priests are ordained.

The primary mission of the Roman Catholic Church is to preach the Gospel of Jesus Christ and administer the sacraments. In aid of this mission, the church operates social programs, institutions, and ministries throughout the world. These include schools, universities, hospitals, and shelters, as well as Catholic Relief Services and Catholic Charities that help the poor, families, the elderly, the sick, among others.

As with the Eastern Orthodox and mainstream Protestants, the Roman Catholic faith is summarized in the Nicene Creed. Claiming to be preserved from error by the Holy Spirit in doctrinal matters, the church established or affirmed other doctrines through ecumenical councils following the example of the first Apostles. Catholic belief is detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Formal Catholic worship is ordered by the liturgy which is regulated by the church. The celebration of the Eucharist, one of seven church sacraments, is considered the center of Catholic worship. However, there are additional forms of personal prayer and devotion including the Rosary, the Stations of the Cross, and Eucharistic adoration.

According to Catholic doctrine, the origins of the Catholic Church can be traced, via apostolic succession, to the Christian community founded by Jesus in his act of consecration of Saint Peter, considered by the church and historians to have been the first pope. Later Church history is intertwined with the history of Western civilization. The church has affected and shaped the lives and beliefs of Christians and non-Christians alike for almost two thousand years. When the Roman Empire fell, the church endeavoured to preserve Western civilization. The 11th century saw the Eastern Church split definitively with the Roman Catholic Church. Subsequent reunification of some of the Eastern churches with Rome created the Roman Catholic Church's Eastern Rite. In the 16th century, the church underwent substantial reforms in response to the Protestant Reformation. Although the Catholic Church believes that it is the true church founded by Jesus Christ, in an apostolic constitution the church acknowledges that the Holy Spirit is active in Christian churches and communities separated from itself, and that Catholics are called by the Holy Spirit to work for unity amongst all Christians. Modern challenges and controversies faced by the church include the church-condemned liberation theology, abortion and euthanasia, the use of contraception, ordination of women and a sex abuse scandal.

Origin and mission

The church traces its origin to Jesus and the Twelve Apostles. It sees the bishops of the church as the successors of the apostles, and the pope in particular as the successor of Peter, leader of the apostles. The Gospel of Matthew recounts Christ's consecration of Peter in these words "... you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys to the kingdom of heaven. Whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven". The coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles at Pentecost brought this promised "church" fully into the world. The church and scholars such as Edward Norman consider this to be the manner of the church's origin and cite historical records that support this belief. Other scholars such as Eamon Duffy caution that the lack of written records or unclear written records during the early years of Christianity make such precision difficult to confirm. In his book Saints and Sinners, A History of the Popes Duffy questions the concept of apostolic succession and doubts that there was a ruling bishop in the Roman church in the first century. Calling "suspiciously tidy" the first historical document to list the Roman bishops back to Saint Peter which was supplied by Irenaeus in the second century, Duffy states, "there is no sure way to settle on a date by which the office of ruling bishop had emerged in Rome, and so to name the first pope, but the process was certainly complete by the time of Anicetus in the mid-150s, when Polycarp, the aged bishop of Smyrna, visited Rome, and he and Anicetus debated amicably the question of the date of Easter".

The church believes that its mission is founded upon Christ's biblical command to his followers to spread the faith across the world: "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you: and Lo, I am with you always, until the close of the age". Following his death and resurrection, Jesus appeared again to Peter and asked him to "feed" and "tend" his "sheep". The church believes that it follows these mandates by preaching the Gospel and administering the sacraments. The church also administers social programs throughout the world. Through Catholic Relief Services, Catholic Charities, Catholic schools, universities, hospitals, shelters, and ministries to the poor, as well as ministries to families, the elderly and the marginalized, the church applies the tenets of Catholic social teaching and tends to the corporal and spiritual needs of "the sheep."

Beliefs

Catholic belief on all subjects is summarized in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, a book published by the Vatican. These beliefs have been refined and clarified by major councils of the church, convened by the leaders of the church at important points throughout history. The first such council was convened by the first apostles in Jerusalem around the year 50. The most recent was Vatican II, which closed in 1965.

The authority Jesus granted to Peter in the Gospel of Matthew 16 is believed by the church to pass along to each successive pope through apostolic succession. The Pope and the bishops are considered by the church to be the spiritual successors of the original twelve apostles through an unbroken chain of consecration. In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus promises Peter regarding the church, "... the gates of hell will not prevail against it". In the Gospel of John, Jesus states, "I have much more to tell you, but you cannot bear it now. But when he comes, the Spirit of truth, he will guide you to all truth". In the light of these promises, the Catholic Church believes that it is guided by the Holy Spirit and, through divine revelation, prevented from teaching error in doctrinal matters. According to the church the infallible sources of divine revelation are: Sacred Scripture, Sacred Tradition, and the Magisterium. The infallible teachings of the Pope form part of the sacred magisterium, which also includes the pronouncements of ecumenical councils and the "ordinary and universal magisterium".

The beliefs of other Christian denominations differ from those of Roman Catholics in varying degrees. Eastern Orthodox belief differs mainly on the issues of papal infallibility, the filioque clause and the immaculate conception of Mary, but is otherwise quite similar. Protestant churches vary in their beliefs, but they generally differ from Catholics on the authority of the Pope and of church tradition, as well as the role of Mary and the saints, the role of the priesthood, and issues pertaining to grace, good works and salvation. The five solas were one attempt to express these differences.

Creed

The Nicene Creed, an expansion of the Apostles' Creed, sets out the main principles of Catholic Christian belief. The creed is recited at catholic Sunday masses as well as in the services of most other Christian churches. It states:

Spiritual realm and sin

In Catholic belief, before creating mankind God created spiritual beings called angels to be his servants and messengers. Angels are immortal, and possess intelligence and will. In an event known as the "fall of the angels", a number of angels chose to rebel against God and his reign. The church refers to the fallen angel who tempted the first humans to commit original sin as "Satan", the "devil", or the "spirit of evil".

Originally created to live in union with God, the first humans, Adam and Eve, by committing this original sin, brought suffering and death into the world. This event, known as the Fall of Man, left humans separated from their original state of intimacy with God. This state of separation can follow the soul into death. The Catechism states that "the account of the fall in Genesis 3 uses figurative language, but affirms ... a deed that took place at the beginning of the history of man". According to the Catechism, original sin is to each individual soul "a deprivation of original holiness and justice ..." that makes each person "subject to ignorance, suffering, and the dominion of death: and inclined to sin ...". People can be cleansed from this original sin and all personal sins through the sacrament of Baptism.

Jesus commanded his followers to love one another as he loved them. Sinning is the opposite of following Jesus, and is believed to rob a person of his resemblance to God and turn his soul away from God's love. Failing to love God and his neighbor, doing harm to them, and not following the Ten Commandments are some ways a person can commit sin. Some sins are more serious than others, ranging from the lesser venial sins to the graver mortal sins. Mortal sins are deeds that breaks a person's relationship with God. For a sin to be mortal, three conditions must be met: "mortal sin is sin whose object is grave matter and which is also committed with full knowledge and deliberate consent". Catholics can be cleansed from sins other than original sin through the sacrament of Penance.

Jesus

The Gospel of John refers to Jesus as "The Word" who is God, and who was with God from the beginning, and through whom all things were made. In the messianic texts of the Jewish Tanakh, which is also the Christian Old Testament, God promises to send his people a savior who will give his life as an offering for sin. According to Catholics (as well as most other Christian denominations), this promise is fulfilled in Jesus whom John the Baptist called "the lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world". Christians believe that the mission of Jesus included giving us his word and example to follow. A person is helped to avoid sin and to do good by following the words and example of Jesus Christ which are found in the four Gospels. Jesus preached that following him leads to the fullness of life and love. Furthermore, through his suffering, all people have an opportunity for forgiveness of and freedom from sin. This forgiveness is believed to reconcile the person to God. The sacrament of Penance is the principal means by which Catholics obtain this forgiveness and receive God's grace and help not to sin again. Penance also helps prepare Catholics before they can validly receive the Holy Spirit in the sacraments of confirmation and the eucharist.

Eucharist

The Catholic Church believes that, through transubstantiation, the consecrated bread and wine of the Eucharist becomes the body, blood, soul, and divinity of Jesus Christ; equally present and complete in each form. The church encourages the faithful to receive the eucharist as often as a person who is in a state of grace desires. Anyone who is aware of having committed a mortal sin must not receive the eucharist without having received absolution in the sacrament of penance. The Catholic Church also teaches that receiving the eucharist forgives venial sin. It is a precept of the church that the faithful Catholic must receive the eucharist at least once a year, and that at Easter time. Catholics must also observe the eucharistic fast, which involves taking nothing but water and medicines into the body for some time before receiving the eucharist during the Mass. Before 1964, the eucharistic fast began at midnight. Pope Paul VI reduced the fast to a period of one hour. Current law requires merely one hour of eucharistic fast, although some Catholics still abide by the older rule.

Social teaching

Catholic social teaching, based on the words of Jesus, commits Catholics to the welfare of others. Catholic life requires both spiritual and corporal works of mercy. Satisfying the hungry and thirsty, welcoming strangers, immigrants or refugees, clothing the naked, taking care of the sick and visiting those in prison are all corporal works of mercy. Spiritual works require the Catholic to: share their knowledge with others, give advice to those who need it, comfort those who suffer, be patient with others, forgive those who hurt them, give correction to those who need it, and pray for the living and the dead.

Holy Spirit

Jesus told his apostles that he would send them the "Advocate," the "Holy Spirit," who "will teach you everything and remind you of all that I told you". According to the Catechism, the Holy Spirit "restores to the baptized the divine likeness lost through sin". To the Catholic, receiving the Holy Spirit is receiving God, the source of all that is good. United with God, the believer allows God to live and work through him, producing the fruits of the spirit—namely love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self control. The sacraments of Confirmation and the Eucharist are means by which Catholics obtain the gifts of the Holy Spirit. The sacrament of confirmation can be conferred only once in a person's lifetime.

Church

Jesus said to his disciples "Abide in me, and I in you ... I am the vine, you are the branches". Thus, for Catholics, the term "church" refers not only to a building but also to the people of God who abide in Jesus and form the different parts of his spiritual body. In Catholic belief, the church includes all of the faithful who have ever lived. The departed saints are believed to be still alive in heaven and to regularly intercede for people on earth. This is called the "communion of the saints". The New Testament contains many warnings against false teachings considered to be only masquerading as Christianity, and shows that such matters were deferred to the leaders of the church in order to determine what was true doctrine. The Catholic Church believes that it is in continuing descent from those Christians who remained faithful to the apostolic leadership and rejected false teachings. Although the Catholic Church believes and teaches that it is the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church, it also believes that the Holy Spirit can make use of other churches to bring people to salvation. In its apostolic constitution, the church acknowledges that the Holy Spirit is active in Christian churches and communities separated from itself, and that Catholics are called by the Holy Spirit to work for unity amongst all Christians.

Devotion to saints

Catholic belief holds that the church exists simultaneously both on earth and in heaven, and thus Mary, the mother of Jesus, and the other saints are alive and part of the living church. Prayers and devotions to Mary and the saints are a common part of Catholic life. These devotions are not worship, since only God is worshipped. Rather, the saints are honoured as exemplars, and they join in the prayers of those on earth. The church teaches that the saints "do not cease to intercede with the Father for us... so by their fraternal concern is our weakness greatly helped".

Catholics venerate Mary with many loving titles such as "Blessed Virgin", "Mother of God", "Help of Christians", and "Mother of the Faithful". She is given special honor and devotion above all other saints but this honor and devotion differs essentially from the adoration given to God. Catholics do not worship Mary but honor her as mother of Christ, mother of the church and as a spiritual mother to each believer of Christ. She is called the greatest of the saints, the first disciple, and queen of heaven. Catholic belief encourages following her example of holiness. Prayers and devotions asking for her intercession, such as the Rosary, the Hail Mary and the memorare are common Catholic practice. The Church devotes several liturgical feasts to Mary. The major feasts of Mary celebrated on the liturgical calendar are: The Immaculate Conception, Mary, Mother of God, the Visitation, the Assumption, the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and, in the Americas, the feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe. Pilgrimages to marian shrines like Lourdes, France and Fátima, Portugal are a common form of devotion, often including prayer asking for her intercession.

Final judgment and afterlife

Chapter 25 of the Gospel of Matthew underpins the Catholic belief that a day will come when Jesus willt sit in judgment of all mankind. "Come, you who are blessed by my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world; for I was hungry and you gave me food, I was thirsty and you gave me drink, a stranger and you welcomed me, naked and you clothed me, ill and you cared for me, in prison and you visited me ... amen I say to you, whatever you did for one of these least brothers of mine, you did for me. This final judgment is distinguished from a particular judgment that occurs at the moment of death. According to the Church, each soul will appear before the judgment seat of Christ, immediately after death, and receive a particular judgment of either good or evil based on the deeds of their earthly life. The final judgment will bring an end to human history, the physical universe, and the state of Purgatory. It will also mark the beginning of a new heaven and earth in which righteousness dwells and God will reign forever.

There are three states of afterlife in Catholic belief. Heaven is a time of glorious union with God and a life of unspeakable joy that lasts forever. Purgatory is a temporary place for the purification of souls who, although saved, are not free enough from sin to enter directly into heaven. It is for those who tried to love God and others but did so somewhat imperfectly. Through God's mercy, these souls are purged of their sins. The church asks for and encourages prayers for the purification of these souls especially at Mass. Finally, those who freely chose a life of sin and selfishness, were not sorry for their sins and had no intention of changing their ways go to hell. Hell is everlasting separation from God. The church teaches that God points out the way that leads to life but does not force anyone to choose that way and no one is condemned to hell without freely deciding to reject God and his love. He predestines no one to hell and no one can judge or determine whether any particular person has been condemned. Catholics believe that God's mercy is such that a person can repent even at the point of death and be saved, like the good thief who was crucified next to Jesus. Death, judgment, heaven and hell are called the "four last things".

Prayer and worship

In the Catholic Church, a distinction is made between the formal, public liturgy and other prayers or devotions. The liturgy is regulated by church authority and consists of the eucharist and mass, the other sacraments, and the Liturgy of the Hours. All Catholics are expected to participate in the liturgical life of the church by attending mass on Sundays, but individual or communal prayer and devotions, while encouraged, are a matter of personal preference. The church provides a set of precepts that every Catholic is expected to follow. These precepts set a minimum standard for personal prayer and moral effort. These are:

Mass, sacraments, liturgical year

Sunday is a holy day of obligation on which Catholics are required to attend Mass. In doing this, Catholics believe that they are responding to Jesus' scriptural command to "do this in remembrance of me". In 1570 at the Council of Trent, Pope Pius V codified a standard form for the celebration of mass for the Latin or Roman rite. This was called the tridentine mass and endured universally until after Vatican II in the 1960s. The text of the tridentine mass was in Latin, as had been all previous Western rites, since Latin was the universal language of the church. Because many worldwide Catholics, especially new converts, did not speak Latin, a simplified, vernacular mass known as the Novus Ordo Missae was promulgated by Pope Paul VI in 1969, replacing the tridentine mass for normal use. This caused some controversy within the church. However, both forms of the mass are still practiced with the vernacular being more commonly used.

The standard Catholic Mass is separated into two parts. The first part is called Liturgy of the Word, in which passages from the Old and New Testament are read prior to a Gospel passage and the priest's homily. The second part is called Liturgy of the Eucharist where the actual sacrament of the Eucharist is celebrated. Catholics regard the eucharist as the source and summit of the Christian life, and believe that the bread and wine brought to the altar are changed through the power of the Holy Spirit into the true body and the true blood of Christ. This is called transubstantiation. The Mass is a re-presentation of Christ's sacrifice on Calvary.

There are seven sacraments of the church, of which the most important is the Eucharist. According to the Catechism, these sacraments were instituted by Christ and entrusted to the church. They are vehicles through which God's grace flows into the person who receives them with the proper disposition. In order to obtain the proper disposition, individuals are encouraged to attend classes before being permitted to receive certain sacraments. Participation in the sacraments, offered to them through the church, is how Catholics obtain forgiveness of sins and formally ask for the Holy Spirit. These sacraments are Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders and Holy Matrimony.

The Catholic liturgical year follows key events in the life of Jesus. It begins with Advent, the time of preparation for both the celebration of Jesus' birth, and his expected second coming at the end of time. Christmas follows, beginning on the night of 24 December, Christmas Eve, and ending with the feast of the baptism of Jesus on 13 January. Lent is the 40-day period of purification and penance that begins on Ash Wednesday and ends on Maundy Thursday. The Holy Thursday evening Mass of the Lord's Supper, marks the beginning of the Easter Triduum which ends on Good Friday. These days recall Jesus' last supper with his disciples, his passion, death on the cross, and burial. The season of Easter celebrates Jesus's resurrection on Easter Sunday and climaxes at Pentecost, a feast recalling the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus' disciples in the upper room after the Ascension. The rest of the liturgical year is known as Ordinary Time.

Liturgy of the hours

The Liturgy of the Hours, also known as the Divine Office, is a prayer sequence through which Catholics consecrate the day to God. It makes particular use of the Psalms as well as readings from the New and Old Testament, and intercessions. It is an adaptation of the ancient Jewish practice of praying the Psalms at certain hours of the day or night. Catholics who pray the Liturgy of the Hours use a set of books issued by the church called a breviary. By canon law, priests and deacons are required to pray the Liturgy of the Hours each day. Religious communities often make praying the Liturgy of the Hours a part of their rule of life, and the second Vatican council encouraged the Christian laity to take up the practice.

Devotional life and personal prayer

In addition to the mass, the Catholic Church considers personal and communal prayer to be one of the most important elements of Christian life. In the Gospel, Jesus instructs his disciples to "pray always". The church considers personal prayer a Christian duty, one of the spiritual works of mercy and a principal way we nourish a relationship with God. There are three ways of praying identified in the Catechism: vocal prayer, meditation, and contemplative prayer. Quoting from John Chrysostom, the Catechism states, "whether or not our prayer is heard depends not on the number of words, but on the fervor of our souls". Meditation is prayer where the "mind seeks to understand the why and how of Christian life, in order to adhere and respond to what the Lord is asking". Contemplative prayer is being with God, taking time to be close to and alone with him. Two of the core prayers of the Catholic Church are the Rosary and Stations of the Cross. These prayers are sometimes vocal, but always meditative and contemplative. Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament is a common form of contemplative prayer. Benediction is vocal. Lectio divina which means "sacred reading" is a form of meditative prayer. The church encourages patterns of prayer intended to develop toward continual prayer. This includes such daily prayers as grace at meals and the liturgy of the hours, as well as the weekly rhythm of Sunday eucharist, and the observation of the year-long liturgical cycle.

Church organization and community

The Pope is the spiritual head and leader of the Catholic Church and governs from the Vatican in Vatican City. To help in church government matters, he makes use of the Roman Curia. Vatican City is a sovereign state to which the pope also serves as Head of State. He is elected by the College of Cardinals, who may theoretically select any male member of the church, but that person must be ordained a bishop before taking office. Since the 15th century, a current cardinal has always been elected. The basic administrative unit of the Roman Catholic Church is the diocese, each of which is led by a bishop appointed by the pope. There are more than 2,500 Catholic dioceses in the world. The bishops are responsible for teaching, governing and sanctifying the faithful of their diocese, and are helped by priests and deacons who in turn are responsible for the same duties within an individual church also called a parish.

The term laity refers to everyone in the community who is not an ordained bishop, priest, or deacon. Members of both the ordained and the laity may take vows of poverty, chastity and obedience and enter the consecrated life, also called religious life. Consecrated religious may be men or women dedicated to God in a binding manner that is recognized by the church. Its members are not part of the hierarchy, unless they are also ordained priests. The worldwide church community is administered according to the Code of Canon Law published by the Vatican.

Ordained members

Men may become bishops, priests or deacons through the sacrament of Holy Orders. Candidates for the priesthood must have a college degree in addition to another four to five years of seminary formation. This formation includes not only academic classes but also human, spiritual and pastoral education. The Catholic Church only ordains men because the Twelve Apostles chosen by Jesus were all male. The church teaches that women have a different yet equally important role in church ministry, prayer and life.

Bishops possess the fullness of Christian priesthood. Priests and deacons participate in and are subordinate to the ministry of the bishop. As a body the College of Bishops are considered to be the successors of the apostles. The College of Bishops includes the pope, along with all cardinals, patriarchs, primates, archbishops and metropolitans. Only bishops are allowed to perform the sacraments of holy orders and confirmation.

Each bishop heads a diocese, which is divided into a number of parishes. A parish is usually staffed by at least one priest. As well as serving a parish, priests may also be rectors or chaplains. Other functions held by priests include those of archimandrite, canon secular or regular, chancellor, chorbishop, confessor, dean of a cathedral chapter, hieromonk, prebendary and precentor. Permanent deacons preach and teach. They may also baptize, lead the faithful in prayer, witness marriages, and conduct wake and funeral services. Candidates for the diaconate go through a diaconate formation program and must meet minimum standards set by the bishops' conference in their home country. Upon completion of their formation program and acceptance by their local bishop, candidates receive the sacrament of holy orders.

While deacons may be married, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Rite. Protestant clergy who have converted to the Catholic Church are sometimes excepted from this rule. The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men. All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition that, after ordination, marriage is not allowed. A married priest whose wife dies may not remarry. Men with transitory homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but men with deeply rooted homosexual tendencies who are sexually active cannot be ordained.

Members of religious orders

The Catholic Church recognizes several forms of the consecrated life. These include the cenobitic life in the religious institutes which are also referred to as monastic orders, religious orders, or religious congregations. Additional forms include the eremitic/anchoritic life, the order of virgins, the life of the consecrated widows/widowers, and in secular institutes and societies of apostolic life. It also makes a provision for the approval of new forms of consecrated life.

The majority of those desiring to enter the consecrated life join a religious institute, in which they follow a common rule such as the Rule of St Benedict or its equivalent, and agree to live under the leadership of a superior. They usually live in community, although occasionally an individual is given permission to live as a hermit while retaining membership in the religious institute. Others may be given permission to reside elsewhere, for example as resident chaplain to a community of nuns, or as a priest serving a non-local parish.

To enter consecrated life a member must consecrate himself or herself to God. This can be done through a public profession confirmed by vow or other sacred bond. By making this vow, members promise to follow the three evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty and obedience, and are consecrated to God through the ministry of the church. They also become members of the particular institute into which they have been received. Examples of religious institutes include the Benedictines, Dominicans, Sisters of Charity, Marist Brothers, Franciscans, Passionists, Carmelites, and Cistercians but there are many others. Consecrated virgins, hermits, widows/widowers and members of societies of apostolic life are consecrated by their diocesan bishop according to the approved liturgical rite and observe a proper program of living under his direction.

Lay members

Catholics who are neither ordained clergy nor consecrated religious are called laity. Within the church community they are considered equals to the ordained and consecrated in dignity, in the call to holiness, and in the work to build the church. The lay person's role in the church body is to make Christian teaching and the Christian life a reality in the social, political, and economic realms of the secular world. The church has recognized that not only the ordained, but also the lay faithful participate in Christ's priestly, prophetic and royal offices. The laity participate in the priestly office of Christ by offering their prayer and good works as spiritual sacrifices. They labor in the prophetic office by being good Christian examples to the world both in word and deed. The kingly office requires the lay person to master himself and work to conform worldly institutions to the norms of justice. Some of the non-ordained exercise formal, public ministry in the name of the church. These are called lay ecclesial ministers, a broad category which may include pastoral life coordinators, pastoral associates, pastoral assistants, youth ministers, campus ministers, etc.

Lay ecclesial movements consist of lay Catholics organized for purposes of catechesis, cultural work, mutual support, and/or missionary apostolate. While consisting generally of laity, these groups may also have some ordained or religious members. Examples of such groups include; L'Arche Communities, Communion and Liberation, Neocatechumenal Way, Regnum Christi, Focolare Movement, Charismatic movement, Traditionalists, Opus Dei, Life Teen, Lay Cistercians and many more. Pope John Paul II, in a Pentecost vigil sermon in May 1998, elaborated on the role of these groups in the church: "The Church expects from you the mature fruits of communion and commitment. The world is dominated by a secularized culture which encourages and promotes models of life without God. Thus we see an urgent need for powerful proclamation and solid, in-depth Christian formation." He also observed that these movements represented "wonderful Christian families...true domestic churches...many vocations to the ministerial priesthood and the religious life have blossomed..." as a result.

Tertiaries are laypersons who live according to the third rule of one of the mendicant orders such as the Franciscans or Carmelites, either outside of a monastery in the world (secular third order), or in a religious community (regular third order). Although secular tertiaries make a public profession, can wear the habit and participate in the good works of their order; they are not bound by public vows as are those living in community.

Church history

The Roman Catholic Church has influenced and shaped the life, belief and culture of both Christians and non-Christians for almost two thousand years. Its history has been intricately entwined with the history of Western civilization. The following is a brief summary of key events in Roman Catholic History.

Roman empire

Catholic doctrine, which the church holds sacred, is based on the twin sources of scripture and tradition. According to this deposit of faith, the apostles selected by Jesus of Nazareth, directly and fully transmitted the words of Jesus that revealed God's nature and the divine assembly of God's people which came to be known as the church. According to the church and many historians, following the death of Jesus, Peter and the other apostles preached the Gospel both in Judea and in surrounding lands. Due to their efforts more than 40 Christian communities were in existence by the year 100. The many different Christian churches of the first century, including the Roman church, were linked by common beliefs based on personal testimony. The church of Rome, from the first century onward, gained a reputation as the seat of orthodoxy and authority because Rome was the epicenter of the Empire and Peter and Paul led the church in Rome before their martyrdom. The first church council, the Council of Jerusalem, was commenced by the first Apostles in or around the year 50 to reconcile these doctrinal differences. While competing forms of Christianity would persist through the fifth century, the practice of meeting in councils like this became the indispensable way of keeping a common mind for leaders in the Roman church ever after.

Throughout the following centuries, church teachings and traditions were defined and formed into a systematic whole with the help of theological apologists, such as St Clement, St Ignatius of Antioch, St Justin Martyr, and St Augustine. All the while, because they refused to offer sacrifice to Roman gods and defer to Roman rulers as gods, these early Christians were frequently subject to persecution. By the mid-third century, persecution was extensive throughout the empire. The ferocity of the persecution varied, with tradition holding Decius and Valerian I prominent among persecuting emperors. In spite of these persecutions, the effective systems of Roman roads facilitated evangelization.

However, it is Diocletian who is remembered for his efforts from 300–11, to completely wipe out Christianity. The Diocletianic persecution, which continued following Diocletian's abdication in 305, was officially ended in 311 by the tetrarch Emperor Galerius, who issued an edict of tolerance on his deathbed. Christianity was legalized in 313, when Emperor Constantine I, a Christian sympathiser, issued the Edict of Milan.

Constantine was also instrumental in convening the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which decided on a church administrative system and formulated the basic statement of Christian belief, the Nicene Creed. This substantially quelled the Arian debate concerning the trinity of God, which then finally ended in 362 in the West and 381 in the East. During the reign of Pope Sylvester I, Constantine erected the first Basilica of St. Peter and several other large basilican churches in and around Rome including the Lateran and a papal residence. Many modern Catholic and basic Christian practices were established during Constantines reign. The spread of Christianity was further assisted when it became the official religion of the empire in 380 under Emperor Theodosius I.

Over subsequent decades a series of ecumenical christological councils formally codified critical elements of the theology of the church. The Council of Rome in 382 set the Biblical canon, listing the accepted books of the Old and New Testament. From 392 on, the translation of the Bible from Greek to Latin, circulated throughout the Roman Empire. The Council of Ephesus in 431 clarified the nature of Jesus's incarnation, declaring that Jesus was both fully man and fully God in a single personhood. Because of disagreements over the precise nature of the incarnation of Jesus, the first of the various Oriental Orthodox Churches broke away from the Catholic Church beginning in 451.

Early Middle ages

After the Western half of the Roman Empire fell to invaders in 476, the Catholic Church launched missionary activity among the barbarian tribes. Clovis I, pagan king of the Franks was converted in 496. From 597 missionaries such as Augustine of Canterbury, Saint Boniface, Willibrord and Ansgar took Christianity into northern Europe. In this way Catholicism spread among the Germanic peoples, the Celts, and the Slavic peoples, reaching the Vikings and other Scandinavians in subsequent centuries.

In 530, Saint Benedict wrote his Rule of St Benedict as a practical guide for monastic community life. Due to its sound structure and moderation, it soon spread to monasteries throughout Europe. The rejuvenated monasteries were important contributors to the communities around them. These centers of intellectual activity, science, and education served as lodging for travellers, pilgrimage destinations, and libraries. With the breakdown of civil administration after the fall of the Roman Empire the Catholic Church performed many social and governmental services, including making and enforcing laws, collecting taxes, and operating schools and farms. Church officials could hold considerable political power, often serving as advisors to kings. Feudal lords who rebelled risked excommunication a severe penalty that facilitated peace. The church's influence continued to expand, and it became one of the most powerful institutions of the Middle Ages.

During this period, the church continued to evolve. Pope Gregory the Great (590–604) dramatically reformed ecclesiastical structure and administration, launching a renewed missionary effort. However between 650 and 732 Islamic armies overran the Christian lands of Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa and Spain, only being halted at Poitiers in France. In the 8th century, Byzantine emperors sponsored iconoclasm, possibly as a reaction to the advance of Muslim armies into their territories. The popes challenged Byzantine power and preserved the use of images in regions outside imperial control. The dispute was resolved in 787 when the Second Council of Nicaea ruled in favour of icons. In 858 disagreements between the Eastern and Western churches arose again when Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople was deposed in favour of the more extreme Photios. The Pope backed Ignatius, and the subsequent bitter dispute further inflamed differences between Catholic and Orthodox churches.

High Middle Ages

In 910, the Benedictine monastery of Cluny led a movement to free abbeys from secular control. Until this time monasteries were generally established or sponsored by feudal lords who maintained a right to interfere in monastic affairs. The Cluniac reforms placed the abbot under the direct control of the pope. Cluny and daughter houses then had the ability to enforce a monastic rule without interference. Rejuvenated by these reforms, the number of monasteries increased, and monastic influence upon society expanded. Monasteries, convents, and cathedrals operated most schools and libraries. After 1100, some older cathedral schools split into lower "grammar schools" and higher schools for advanced learning. First in Bologna, then at Paris and Oxford, many of these higher schools developed into universities. Originally teaching only theology, history and philosophy, they steadily added subjects including medicine, and law and became the direct ancestors of modern Western institutions of learning. Monastic contributions to society also included the teaching of metallurgy, introduction of new crops, the creation and translation of literature including ancient texts, preservation of literacy, pioneering technology, invention of champagne and hospitality to wanderers.

The eleventh century also saw the formalization of the East-West schism, which left Christianity permanently divided. A dispute over whether Constantinople or Rome held jurisdiction over the church in Sicily led to mutual excommunications in 1054. The Western (Latin) branch of the church has since become known as the Roman Catholic Church, while the Eastern (Greek) branch has become known as the Orthodox Church. These churches disagree on a number of administrative, liturgical, and doctrinal issues, most notably the Filioque clause and papal primacy of jurisdiction. The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) each failed to heal the schism. Some Eastern churches have subsequently reunited with the Roman Catholic Church, and others claim never to have been out of communion with the Pope. Officially, the two churches remain in schism, although excommunications were mutually lifted in 1965.

Pope Urban II launched the First Crusade in 1095 after receiving an appeal from Byzantine emperor Alexius I to help ward off a Turkish invasion. The Crusades, a series of military campaigns, lasted from 1096 to 1270 and were intended to return the Holy Land to Christian control. This goal was not permanently realized and episodes of brutality caused a legacy of mutual distrust between Muslims, Jews, Western and Eastern Christians. Although church leaders who initiated the crusades did not condone the massacres, Pope John Paul II apologized to the Orthodox Christians in 2001 for the sins of Catholics including the sacking of Constantinople in 1204.

Eight new monastic orders were founded in the twelfth century, these included the ultra-rigorous Carthusians and another new and influential ascetic order, the Cistercians, who established their houses in wild and remote locations. These orders helped bring much needed spiritual cleansing to the church. Cistercian Bernard of Clairvaux criticised lavish church spending while "children are naked". His influence led Pope Alexander III to begin a transformation in the church that would lead to the establishment of canon law. Church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights during this period, culminating in the orders of Romanesque and Gothic architecture and the building of the great European cathedrals. Beginning in 1140 with the Abbey of St Denis near Paris, there was an explosion in cathedral building. The new Gothic style of architecture allowed walls to accommodate windows that were a great improvement over the relatively dark Romanesque churches. In another development, consecrated religious life was brought out of the monastery and into urban settings in the 13th century with the founding of mendicant orders or friars. The two principal mendicant movements were the Franciscans and the Dominicans.

In the twelfth century Catharism arose as the greatest threat to the Western church. Cathars were dualists, advocated extreme asceticism, taught that all matter was evil, and denied the value of church sacraments. Saint Dominic attempted to convert them by preaching. When this failed, and a papal legate was murdered in southern France in 1209, Pope Innocent III declared a crusade, encouraging secular rulers to stamp out this teaching that the church considers heresy. Following a costly civil war, the first inquisition was founded in the 1230s to root out remaining Cathars. Further separate inquisitions were established at later dates. Historians distinguish between the Medieval Inquisition, the Spanish Inquisition, the Roman Inquisition, and the Portuguese Inquisition, some under state and others under church control. The Inquisitions were intended to identify and prosecute heretics, and some were initiated in response to the threat of Moorish invasion. The accused were encouraged to recant their heresy and those who did not could be punished by fine, imprisonment, or execution by burning, although fewer than 4 percent of the accused were sentenced to death during the Spanish Inquisition. In 1252, the church, following the model of some secular tribunals, authorized torture as a method of questioning and issued guidelines on when it was allowed to be applied. Some of the inquisitions also prosecuted bigamy, usury, apostasy, blasphemy, and on rarer occasions for witchcraft. Some accusations were made for political rather than religious purposes. The inquisitions played a major role in the final extermination of Islam from the kingdoms of Sicily and Spain.

The fourteenth century was marked by many church-state conflicts. Efforts to come to terms with powerful secular rulers, particularly in France and the Holy Roman Empire led to the election in 1305 of Pope Clement V, a close ally of the king of France. Clement chose not to settle in Rome, and under the influence King Philip the Fair, became the first of seven French popes to reside in Avignon, France. This was termed by many the "Babylonian captivity of the papacy". Through the influence of Catherine of Siena and Bridget of Sweden, the papacy eventually returned to Rome in 1378. However, with the death of Pope Gregory XI later that year, the papal election was disputed between supporters of Italian and French-backed candidates, leading to the Western schism. For 38 years, separate claimants to the papal throne sat in both Rome and Avignon. Efforts at resolution in 1409 further complicated the matter with the election of a third, compromise, pope. The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the Council of Constance where the cardinals called upon all three claimants to the papal throne to resign, and held a new election naming Martin V pope.

Renaissance

"I am a poor old woman who knows nothing, who cannot read. But in the Church I see Paradise painted, and Hell where the damned broil." These words of a fifteenth century French woman illustrate an important reason for the great sponsorship of art by the church of the times. Cathedrals and churches were not just places of worship; for millions of uneducated people they were picture books and art galleries whose stained glass windows, frescos, statues, carvings, paintings and panels told stories of saints and biblical characters. It is during this time that great artists like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci created some of the world's most famous artworks at the request of the church.

Through the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries European missionaries and explorers spread Catholicism to the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania. Pope Alexander VI awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal. Three decades later, in 1521, the first Catholics were baptised in what would become the first Christian nation in Southeast Asia, the Philippines. In India, Portuguese missionaries and the Spanish Jesuit, Francis Xavier were evangelizing the Christian community that had already been established there by the Apostle Thomas. Major contributions to civilization made by Catholics in this era include the institution of modern approaches to social work, hospital care, and education through the influence of many men and women subsequently recognized by the church as saints.

In December 1511, Antonio de Montesinos, a Dominican friar, openly rebuked the Spanish authorities governing Hispaniola for their mistreatment of the American natives, telling them "...you are in mortal sin...for the cruelty and tyranny you use in dealing with these innocent people". This rebuke eventually reached King Ferdinand who enacted the Laws of Burgos and Valladolid in response. This legislation on behalf of the natives met with disappointing enforcement, however the issue roused a crisis of conscience in sixteenth century Spain. An outpouring of self-criticism and philosophical reflection among Catholic theologians, most notably Fr. Francisco de Vitoria, led to debate on the nature of human rights, and the birth of modern international law.

In Europe, the Renaissance was a period of renewed interest in ancient and classical learning, and a re-examination of accepted beliefs. On 31 October 1517, Martin Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses, which protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences. Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and others further criticised Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into a movement called the Protestant Reformation. Among the doctrines the Reformation called into question were primacy of the pope, clerical celibacy, the seven sacraments, and the Eucharist.

In England, the Reformation followed a different course than elsewhere in Europe. The English Reformation began as another chapter in the long running dispute with the Catholic Church over the jurisdiction of the pope in England. Ostensibly based on Henry VIII's desire for an annulment, it was, at the outset, more of a political than a theological dispute, but the reality of political differences between Rome and England nonetheless allowed growing theological disputes to come to the fore. The split from Rome made the English monarch head of the English church by "Royal Supremacy", thereby establishing the Church of England, but the structure and theology of that church was a matter of fierce dispute for generations. Beginning in 1536, monasteries throughout England, Wales, and Ireland were dissolved and Catholic churches were confiscated. Henry VIII executed those like Thomas More, who disagreed openly with his Act of Supremacy. During the reign of Mary I of England, a reunion of the Church of England with Rome led to persecutions of Protestants. Subsequent English monarchs persecuted Catholics. At the beginning of Elizabeth I's reign some Catholic practices were outlawed, but the laws were often loosely enforced. Following her excommunication by Pope Pius V, the English government suppressed several Catholic rebellions and feared invasion from Catholic Spain. Elizabeth I then issued the Acts of Persuasion, which made conversion to Catholicism treason punishable by death. Similar laws were enacted in Ireland. The so-called "Elizabethan Religious Settlement" was an uneasy compromise in the Church of England, which was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on the one hand and Roman Catholicism on the other, but compared to the bloody and chaotic state of affairs in contemporary France, it was relatively successful for a time. The success of the Catholic reformation on the continent and the growth of a Puritan party dedicated to further reform in England polarised the Elizabethan era, although it was not until the 1640s that England underwent religious strife comparable to that which the rest of Europe was already suffering.

In Germany, the reformation led to religious war between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Roman Catholic Emperor Charles V. After nine years, the war ended with the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, but more serious conflict broke out in the following century. In France a series of eight civil wars were fought between 1560 and 1621 between militant followers of Calvinism and the forces of the French Catholic League. During this period several attempts at religious toleration were attempted by French rulers, but these failed to stop the conflict. King Henry IV, successfully ended the religious wars, when he issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598 granting civil and religious toleration to Protestants.

The Catholic Church launched its primary response to the Protestant Reformation at the Council of Trent (1545–63), which is seen as the beginning of the Counter-Reformation. At Trent, Church leaders clarified Catholic doctrine in sharp contrast to Protestantism; defending clerical celibacy, belief in the real presence of Jesus in communion, the freedom of human will as opposed to Luther's doctrine of the bondage of the will, and opposing the Protestant teaching of "faith alone" for salvation, insisting that faith must be accompanied by love and hope. The Council also addressed abuses such as clerical corruption, absentee clergy and poorly-trained priests. A renewed enthusiasm led to the founding of new religious orders, such as the Theatines and the Jesuits. New seminaries were established for the proper training of priests, there was an increase in worldwide missionary activity, and the development of new yet orthodox forms of spirituality, such as that of the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality. The Baroque style in art and architecture was encouraged by the church as a vehicle to popularise counter-reformation teachings. Baroque religious expression was emotional, with joyful and exuberant music and art intended to appeal to the senses. Emphasizing the humanity of Jesus and the tender, motherly qualities of Mary, this style appealed to the common people by offering them joyous religious experiences in contrast to their otherwise drab lives.

Age of reason

Although mission work proceeded throughout the world, a major setback occurred in Japan, to which Christianity had been introduced in the sixteenth century by Francis Xavier. Japanese Catholics numbered in the tens of thousands by the end of the century. However from 1597 Japanese authorities launched a severe persecution of Christians that lasted thirty years. Foreign missionaries were banished and Christians who remained suffered death by crucifixion. The church experienced further missionary setbacks when the Chinese Rites controversy led the Kangxi Emperor to ban Christian missions in that country.

Pope Innocent XII launched further church reform in 1691 when he outlawed nepotism and simony. Despite the changes, the European religious conflicts of the Reformation era provoked a backlash against Christianity. Not only did enlightenment thinking bring Christianity increasingly under attack, but outside of Italy secular powers gained control of virtually all major church appointments and much of the church's property. The pope strongly disapproved of and condemned Catholic ruler Louis XIV and his persecution of Huguenots. Later efforts by the pope to unite Catholic nations against the danger of the Turks resulted in further alienation between pro-Turkish France and Rome. In 1773 European rulers united to force Pope Clement XIV to dissolve the Jesuit order. Matters grew still worse with the violent anti-clericalism of the French Revolution. The church was outlawed, all monasteries destroyed, 30,000 priests were exiled and hundreds more were killed. When Pope Pius VI took sides against the revolution in the First Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy. The Pope was imprisoned by French troops the following year and died after six weeks of captivity. After a change of heart, Napoleon then re-established the Catholic Church in France with the signing of the Concordat of 1801. The end of the Napoleonic wars brought Catholic revival and renewed enthusiasm following the depredations of the previous era. Many new religious and missionary orders including the Marists, the Grey Nuns, the Passionists, and the Holy Ghost Fathers worked across the world.

In the Americas, the church expanded its missions in cooperation with the Spanish government and military. Junípero Serra, the Franciscan priest in charge of this effort, founded a series of missions which quickly became important economic, political, and religious institutions. These missions brought grain, cattle, and a new way of living to the pagan Indian tribes of California. Overland routes were established from New Mexico that resulted in the colonization of San Francisco in 1776 and Los Angeles in 1781. However, by bringing civilization to the area, these missions and the Spanish government have been held responsible for wiping out nearly a third of the native population, primarily through disease. During this same time period, in 1789, with the help of a letter of recommendation from Benjamin Franklin, John Carroll became the first United States bishop. One of his most significant contributions was the founding of Georgetown University in Washington DC. This period also saw the church struggling against the colonial abuses of the Portuguese and Spanish governments. In South America Jesuits established semi-independent colonies or reductions to protect native peoples from enslavement. Pope Gregory XVI, challenging Spanish and Portuguese sovereignty, appointed his own candidates as bishops in the colonies, condemned slavery and the slave trade (in 1839), and approved the ordination of native clergy in the face of government racism.

Modern era

In 1869–70, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility. This doctrine states that when a pope "speaks ... as the pastor and teacher of all Christians ... defining ... a doctrine concerning faith and morals to be held by the whole Church", he "is possessed of that infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer wished for his Church to be endowed ..." This does not mean that the pope is always infallible or even that all his teachings are infallible, but only applies to certain specifically defined pronouncements. According to Pope John Paul II, the doctrines of the Immaculate Conception, proclaimed by Pope Pius IX and the Assumption proclaimed by Pope Pius XII were proclaimed under the required conditions of papal infallibility. The only other church doctrine to officially receive the papal infallibility designation was Ordinatio Sacerdotalis. Confused by the language used by Pope John Paul II in the original document, theologians subsequently debated whether or not it was declared infallibly. The matter was subsequently clarified when the Vatican's Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith declared it to be an infallible teaching. Controversy over papal infallibility and other issues led to the formation of a small breakaway church called the Old Catholic Church. From 1860 onward, anti-clerical regimes came to power in many Latin American nations. The confiscation of church properties and restrictions on people's religious freedoms generally followed as part of a program of secularist or Marxist-leaning governmental reforms. Examples of these anticlerical regimes include that of 1860 Mexico which confiscated church properties and denied basic civil and political rights to religious orders and clergy, eventually leading to an uprising known as the Cristero War. Between 1926–34 the number of priests in Mexico fell by over 3000 due to assassination, emigration or expulsion. Despite the persecution, the church continued to grow in Mexico, and a 2000 census reported that 88 percent of Mexicans identified themselves as Catholic. In Argentina, extravagant press denunciations of the clergy, destruction of churches, and confiscation of Catholic schools occurred under the regime of General Juan Perón in 1954 as he tried to extend state control over national institutions. In 1980 while celebrating mass, Óscar Romero, archbishop of El Salvador, was murdered by supporters of that country's military regime because of his vocal objections to the regime's human rights abuses and violence against the poor. The church is noted for fighting injustices by these and other regimes in Central America and other Latin American countries.

The Industrial Revolution led to increasing concern about the deteriorating conditions of urban workers. Inspired by the German Catholic industrialist Lucien Harmel, Pope Leo XIII published the 1891 encyclical Rerum Novarum explaining Catholic social teaching in terms that rejected socialism while defining the duty of the rich to help the poor beyond mere charity. The encyclical advocated the regulation of working conditions, the establishment of a living wage, and the right of workers to form trade unions.

World War II presented new challenges for the Catholic Church. Even though no church teachings promote the killing of Jews, some historians, such as David Kertzer, blamed the Church for fomenting the antisemitism that fueled the growth of the Nazi regime in Germany. Additionally, Pope Pius XII was accused of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities. Although the historical record reveals his words and efforts were clearly against the Nazis, his actions continue to be a source of debate. Several decades later, in 1998, Pope John Paul II apologized for past actions by Christians that caused suffering to the Jewish people. He also described both Jews and Judaism as elder brothers in the faith.

Vatican II and beyond

In the aftermath of World War II new communist governments came to power in Eastern Europe under the influence of the Soviet Union. Rights to freedom of worship were restricted and churches of all denominations were confiscated and used for non-religious purposes. Religious affiliation was strongly discouraged. The resistance of the church and in particular the leadership of Pope John Paul II were credited with helping to bring about the downfall of communist governments across Europe in 1991.

The Catholic Church engaged in a comprehensive process of reform during and immediately after the Second Vatican Council (1962–65). Convened by Pope John XXIII, the Council stressed what it saw as positive in other Christian communities and other religions. Tasked with making the historical teachings of the Catholic Church clear to the modern world, the council issued documents on numerous topics, including the nature of the church, the mission of the laity, and religious freedom. It also issued directions for a revision of the liturgy, including permission for the Latin liturgical rites to use vernacular languages as well as Latin in the Mass and the other sacraments. The church also embarked on new efforts to improve Christian unity. In addition to finding common ground on certain issues with Protestant churches, the Catholic Church has discussed the possibility of unity with the Eastern Orthodox Church, but this goal has not yet been achieved.

In Latin America, the 1960s saw the emergence of liberation theology. Growing out of sympathy for working-class movements in Latin American cities, this new movement sought revolutionary change to improve the lot of the poor. Using a radical interpretation of the Gospel, liberation theology aimed to redefine the mission of the church toward achieving political change. A chief promoter of this effort was the Peruvian priest Gustavo Gutiérrez. Liberation theology was subsequently denounced by both Pope John Paul II and Benedict XVI. Calling the movement "dangerous", the Church sees it as a return to the pre-modern notion of establishing a Christian society through coercive political management. The movement is still alive in Latin America today although somewhat diminished in popularity.

The sexual revolution of the 1960s brought challenging new issues for the church to address in the form of abortion, euthanasia, and birth control. Pope Paul VI issued the encyclical Humanae Vitae in 1968 to respond to questions on these issues. Humanae Vitae affirmed the sanctity of life from conception to natural death and rejected the use of contraception. Catholics were instead encouraged to use natural family planning if they had serious reasons to limit the size of their families or space the birth of their children. Abortion and euthanasia are considered murder and therefore mortally sinful. The Catholic Church has been both praised and criticized for its staunch pro-life position. The church's rejection of the use of condoms, however, has provoked criticism, especially with respect to countries where AIDS and HIV infections are at epidemic proportions. The church maintains that countries like Kenya, where behavioral changes are endorsed instead of condom use, have experienced greater progress towards controlling the disease than countries solely promoting condoms.

The 1960s also brought the issue of the ordination of women to the fore. Some people began to accuse the Roman Catholic Church of unjust discrimination for refusing this sacrament to women. In response, Pope John Paul II issued two documents to explain church teaching. Mulieris Dignitatem was issued in 1988 to clarify women's equally important and complimentary role in the work of the church. Then in 1994, Ordinatio Sacerdotalis explained that the church only extends ordination to men in order to follow the example of Christ, who chose only men for this specific duty.

As of 2004, the vast majority of worldwide sex abuse cases have been in the United States. Of all US priests, including those now deceased, retired and those no longer serving as priests, who served between 1950 and 2002, four percent faced accusations. The first US lawsuits emerged in 2001 claiming that deviant priests had sexually abused minors. Some priests resigned, others were defrocked and jailed and financial settlements were given to many victims. The church was widely criticized when it was discovered that some bishops knew about allegations of misconduct and then reassigned accused priests instead of removing them from ministry. Some bishops and psychiatrists noted that the prevailing psychology of the times suggested that people could be cured of such behaviour with counseling. Many of the abusive priests had received counseling before being reassigned. Pope John Paul II responded by stating there is no place in the priesthood or religious life for those who abuse children. The church instituted reforms to prevent future abuse including requiring fingerprinting and background checks for church employees and, because almost all victims were teenage boys, disallowing ordination of men with deeply seated homosexual tendencies. These reforms also set up a clear code of conduct for all dioceses to follow when faced with an allegation including alerting the authorities, conducting an investigation and removing the accused priest or employee from duty.

Demographics

The Catholic Church is the largest Christian church, representing over half of all Christians, and is the largest organized body of any world religion. The number of Catholics in the world is around 1.1 billion and continues to increase, particularly in Africa and Asia. As of 2005, Brazil is the country with the largest number of Catholics. The worldwide Catholic Church is made up of one Western or Latin and 22 Eastern Catholic autonomous particular churches. It is divided into jurisdictional areas each called a diocese in the Latin church or an eparchy in the Eastern churches. Each diocese or eparchy is headed by a bishop, patriarch or eparch who is appointed with final approval by the pope. At the end of 2006, the total number of all these jurisdictional areas called sees was 2,782.

Membership

According to canon law, one becomes a member of the Catholic Church by being baptized in the church, or by being received into the church by making a profession of faith, if already baptized. Adults who wish to be received into the church can participate in the Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults. After going through this formation program, they receive all three sacraments of initiation (baptism, eucharist and confirmation) at the Easter vigil on Holy Saturday.

A person can excommunicate themselves or be excommunicated from membership in the church by committing certain particularly grave sins. Excommunication is the most severe ecclesiastical penalty. It prevents a person from validly receiving any church sacrament and can not be forgiven except by the pope, the bishop of the place or priests authorized by them. An example of an offense which incurs excommunication is violation of the seal of confession, which is committed when a priest discloses the sins heard in the sacrament of penance. Other examples include committing heresy, creating schism, becoming an apostate, or throwing away the consecrated species (the body and blood of Jesus received in the eucharist) or taking or retaining them for a sacrilegious purpose. Having an abortion is also considered a grave sin punishable by excommunication. In 2007, Pope Benedict interpreted church doctrine as extending excommunication to abortionists and pro-abortion politicians as well. Among those who have been excommunicated or incurred excommunication are Frederick I, Henry VIII, Elizabeth I and members of the group Womenpriests.

See also

For a list of articles related to this topic, see Roman Catholic Church

References

Footnotes

Bibliography

Further reading

External links