Order of succession

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An order of succession is a formula or algorithm that determines who inherits an office upon the death, resignation, or removal of its current occupant.

Monarchies and nobility

In hereditary monarchies the order of succession is followed in order to determine who becomes the new monarch when the old monarch dies or vacates the throne. Such orders of succession generally specify which descendant of the previous monarch, or in default of a direct heir, which sibling or collateral of the previous monarch, will assume the throne. Generally, the line of succession is restricted to persons of the blood royal (see morganatic marriage), that is to those born into or descended from the present royal family or a previous sovereign. The persons in line to succeed to the throne are called "dynasts." Constitutions, statutes, house laws, and norms may regulate the number of dynasts and the qualifications of potential successors to the throne. In some cases, the order of succession may be reinforced by the coronation of the heir as co-monarch during the life of the present monarch. Examples include Henry the Young King and the use of the title King of the Romans for the heirs of the Habsburg emperors. In the partially elective system of tanistry, the heir or tanist was elected from the qualified males of the royal family.

Also an elective monarchy may use some advance election or appointment already during the lifetime of an incumbent monarch, thus creating an order of succession.

Different monarchies use different algorithms or formulas to determine the line of succession. Chief among the lineal mechanisms are:

Agnatic succession

Main article: Agnatic seniority

Agnatic succession (also called Salic Law) is the complete exclusion of females of the dynasty and their descendants from the succession. The Salic Law applied to the former royal or imperial houses of Albania, France, Italy, Korea, Romania, Yugoslavia, and Prussia/German Empire. It currently applies to the houses of Liechtenstein, Japan and Jordan. Generally, hereditary monarchies that operate under the Salic Law also use primogeniture among male descendants in the male line to determine the rightful successor, although in earlier history agnatic seniority was more usual than primogeniture. Fiefs and titles granted "in tail male" or to "heirs male" follow this primogenitural form of succession. (Those granted to "heirs male of the body" are limited to the male-line descendants of the grantee; those to "heirs male general" may be inherited, after the extinction of the grantee's male-line descendants, by the male-line descendants of his father, paternal grandfather, etc.)

Agnatic-cognatic succession

Also known as Semi-Salic law. In this form of succession, the succession is reserved firstly to all the male dynastic descendants of all the eligible branches by order of primogeniture, then upon total extinction of these male descendants to the eldest of the dynastic female descendants. Current monarchies that operate under Semi-Salic law include Luxembourg, former monarchies that operated under Semi-Salic law included Austria (later Austria-Hungary), Bavaria, Hanover, Württemberg, Russia, Saxony, Tuscany, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. However, note that if a female descendant should take the throne, she will not necessarily be the senior heiress, but possibly the closest relative in relation to the current monarch is designated. For instance, let's say Prince A is elder than Prince B. Prince A becomes King A, then dies with only a daughter, Princess X, so Prince B becomes King B. King B has a daughter, Princess Y, and then King B dies, and there are no more male heirs. Though Princess Y is the current king's eldest daughter, her cousin Princess X is senior, thus the latter would become Queen X.

In practice, on occasions when there exists no male heir in a semi-Salic system, the female heir is usually determined more "pragmatically", by proximity of blood to the current monarch. Examples include Christian I of Denmark's succession to Schleswig-Holstein, Maria Theresa of Austria (although her right ultimately was confirmed in consequence of her victory in the War of the Austrian Succession launched over her accession), Mary Adelaide and Charlotte of Luxembourg and Nassau, Anne of Brittany and Grand Duchess Maria of Russia, as well as Christian IX of Denmark's succession using the right of his wife Louise of Hesse.

Appointment, election, tanistry and rotation

Main article: Elective monarchy

Order of succession can be arranged by appointment: either the incumbent monarch or some electoral body appoints an heir or a list of heirs, already before vacancy occurs. A monarchy may be generally elective, although in a way that the next holder will be elected only after it becomes vacant. In history, quite often, but not always, appointments and elections favored, or were outright limited to, members of a certain dynasty or extended family. There may have been genealogical rules to determine who all are entitled to succeed, and who will be favored. This has led sometimes to an order of succession that balances branches of a dynasty by rotation. It currently applies to the Holy See, Malaysia, Cambodia, Kuwait, the UAE, Andorra, Swaziland, and Samoa.

Seniority

Main article: Agnatic seniority

In seniority successions, a monarch's or fiefholder's next sibling, actually it means almost always brother, succeeds; not his children. And, if the royal house is more extensive, (male) cousins and so forth succeed, in order of seniority, which may depend upon actual age or upon the seniority between their fathers. For fuller account, see agnatic seniority.

Partible inheritance

Main article: Salic patrimony

In some societies, a monarchy or a fief was inherited in a way that all entitled heirs had a right to a share of it.

Primogeniture

Main article: Primogeniture

Detailed article on illustrated examples of Hereditary succession models

Primogeniture (or more properly Male Primogeniture) is a mechanism whereby male descendants of the sovereign take precedence over female descendants, with children representing their deceased ancestors, and where the senior line of descent always takes precedence over the junior line, in each gender. Elder sons always take precedence over younger sons. Younger sons always take precedence over older daughters. The right of succession always belongs to the eldest son of the reigning sovereign (see heir apparent), and then to the eldest son of the eldest son. This is the system in Britain, Spain, and Monaco.

Fiefs or titles granted "in tail general" or to "heirs general" follow this system for sons, but daughters are considered equal co-heirs, at least in modern British practice. This can result in the condition known as abeyance. In the medieval period, actual practice varied with local custom. While women could inherit manors, power was usually exercised by their husbands (jure uxoris) or their sons (jure matris).

Equal Primogeniture

Fully equal primogeniture (or Absolute Primogeniture) is a law in which the eldest child of the sovereign succeeds to the throne, regardless of gender, and where females (and their descendants) enjoy the same right of succession as males. This is currently the system in Sweden (since 1980), the Netherlands (since 1983), Norway (since 1990) and Belgium (since 1991).

Proximity of Blood

Main article: Proximity of blood

Proximity of blood is a system wherein the person closest in degree of kinship to the sovereign succeeds, preferring males over females and elder over younger siblings. This is sometimes used as a gloss for "pragmatic" successions in Europe; it had somewhat more standing during the Middle Ages everywhere in Europe. In Outremer it was often used to choose regents, and it figured in some of the succession disputes over the Kingdom of Jerusalem. It was also recognized in that kingdom for the succession of fiefs, under special circumstances: if a fief was lost to the Saracens and subsequently re-conquered, it was to be assigned to the heir in proximity of blood of the last fief-holder.

Ultimogeniture

Main article: Ultimogeniture

Ultimogeniture is an order of succession where the subject is succeeded by the youngest son (or youngest child). This serves the circumstances where the youngest is "keeping the hearth", taking care of the parents and continuing at home, whereas elder children have had time to succeed "out in the world" and provide for themselves. Remembering the usual age at death, the system has been relatively impractical during past centuries — primogeniture actually evolved from the usual fact that the eldest was most probable to have reached the age of majority, while the youngest have often been babies. Ultimogeniture has been suitable to rulers who have ruled already for several decades and are leaving children who are more or less all adults.

Lateral succession

Lateral or fraternal system of succession mandates principles of seniority among members of a dynasty or dynastic clan, with a purpose of election a best qualified candidate for the leadership. The leaders are elected as being the most mature elders of the clan, already in possession of military power and competence. Fraternal succession is preferred to ensure that mature leaders are in charge, removing a need for regents. The lateral system of succession may or may not exclude male descendants in the female line from succession. In practice, when no male heir is mature enough, a female heir is usually determined "pragmatically", by proximity to the last monarch, like Boariks of the Caucasian Huns or Tamiris of Massagetes. The lateral monarch is generally elected after the leadership throne becomes vacant. In the early years of the Mongol empire, the death of the ruling monarchs, Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan, immediately stopped the Mongol western campaigns because of the upcoming elections. See also the Agnatic seniority.

Government

In politics, a desire to ensure a continuity of operations at all times has resulted in most offices having some formalized order of succession.

In republics with fixed-term elections, the national president is sometimes succeeded following death or resignation by the vice president, in turn followed by various office holders of the parliament or congress, and then members of the cabinet. For example, if both the President of the United States and Vice President of the United States are unable to serve, the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives takes over as President. Next in line is the President pro tempore of the United States Senate, who is followed by the Secretary of State, and other cabinet officials. In many republics, however, a new election takes place some period after the demise of the incumbent president.

References

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Last updated on Tuesday March 04, 2008 at 22:54:23 PST (GMT -0800)
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