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Centaur (minor planet)

The centaurs are an unstable orbital class of minor planets named after the mythological race of centaurs. The name was chosen because they behave as half asteroid and half comet. Centaurs have transient orbits that cross or have crossed those of one or more of the giant planets, and have dynamical lifetimes of a few million years.

The first centaur-like object to be discovered was 944 Hidalgo in 1920. However, they were not recognized as a distinct population until the discovery of 2060 Chiron in 1977. The largest known centaur is 10199 Chariklo, discovered in 1997.

No centaur has yet been photographed up close, although there is evidence that Saturn's moon Phoebe, imaged by the Cassini probe in 2004, may be a captured centaur. In addition, the Hubble Space Telescope has gleaned some information about the surface features of 8405 Asbolus.

As of 2006, three centaurs have been found to display cometary comas, Chiron, 60558 Echeclus, and 166P/NEAT 2001 T4. Chiron and Echeclus are therefore classified as both asteroids and comets. Any centaur that is perturbed close enough to the Sun is expected to become a comet.

Classification

The common definition of a Centaur is an object that orbits the Sun between Jupiter and Neptune. They generally have a semi-major axis between Jupiter and Neptune, and generally cross the orbits of one or more the giant planets. Even centaurs such as 2000 GM137 and 2001 XZ255, which do not currently cross the orbit of any planet, are in unstable orbits that will be perturbed until they start to cross the orbit of one or more of the giant planets. However, different institutions have different criteria as to which borderline objects to include. The Minor Planet Center (MPC) defines centaurs as having a semi-major axis of less than 30.066 AU, the semi-major axis of Neptune. The Deep Ecliptic Survey (DES) defines centaurs using a dynamical classification scheme, based on the behavior of orbital integrations over 10 million years. The DES defines centaurs as nonresonant objects whose osculating perihelia are less than the osculating semimajor axis of Neptune at any time during the integration. This definition is intended to be synonymous with planet-crossing and to suggest dynamically short lives. These differences in outer classification methods make it difficult to classify objects like , which has a semi-major axis of 32 AU but crosses the orbits of both Uranus and Neptune.

Among the inner centaurs, 2005 VD, with a perihelion distance very near Jupiter, is listed as a centaur by both JPL and DES.

Orbits

Distribution

The diagram at right illustrates the orbits of all known centaurs in relation to the orbits of the planets. For selected objects, the eccentricity of the orbits is represented by red segments (extending from perihelion to aphelion). The inclination is represented on the Y axis.

Small inserts show histograms for orbit inclinations (i), eccentricity (e) and semi-major axis (a).

Centaurs' orbits are characterised by a wide range of eccentricity, from highly eccentric (Pholus, Asbolus, Amicus, Nessus) to more circular (Chariklo and the Saturn-crossers: Thereus, Okyrhoe).

To illustrate the range of the orbits' parameters, a few objects with very unusual orbits are plotted in yellow on the diagram:

(Apollo asteroid) follows an extremely eccentric orbit (e=0.947), leading it from inside of the Earth's orbit (0.94 AU) to well beyond Neptune (>34 AU)
follows a quasi-circular orbit (e<0.01)
has the lowest inclination (i<3°).
Damocles is among a few centaurs on orbits with extreme inclination (prograde i>70°, e.g. , , retrograde i<120° e.g. ; not shown)

A dozen known centaurs, including Dioretsa ("asteroid" spelled backwards), follow retrograde orbits.

Changing orbits

Because the centaurs cross the orbits of the giant planets and are not protected by orbital resonances, their orbits are unstable within a timescale of 10⁶ –10⁷ years. Dynamical studies of their orbits indicate that centaurs are probably an intermediate orbital state of objects transitioning from the Kuiper Belt to the Jupiter family of short period comets. Objects may be perturbed from the Kuiper Belt, whereupon they become Neptune-crossing and interact gravitationally with that planet (see theories of origin). They then become classed as centaurs, but their orbits are chaotic, evolving relatively rapidly as the centaur makes repeated close approaches to one or more of the outer planets. Some centaurs will evolve into Jupiter-crossing orbits whereupon their perihelia may become reduced into the inner solar system and they may be reclassified as active comets in the Jupiter family if they display cometary activity. Centaurs will thus ultimately collide with the Sun or a planet or else they may be ejected into interstellar space after a close approach to one of the planets, particularly Jupiter.

Physical characteristics

The relatively small size of centaurs precludes surface observations, but colour indices and spectra can indicate possible surface composition and can provide insight into the origin of the bodies.

Colours

Centaurs display a puzzling diversity of colour that challenges any simple model of surface composition. In the diagram on the right, the colour indices are measures of apparent magnitude of an object through blue (B), visible (V) i.e. green-yellow and red (R) filters. The diagram illustrates these differences (in enhanced colour) for all centaurs with known colour indices. For reference, two moons: Triton and Phoebe, and planet Mars are plotted (yellow labels, size not to scale).

Centaurs appear to be grouped into two classes:

very red, for example 5145 Pholus
blue (or blue-grey, according to some authors), for example 2060 Chiron

There are numerous theories to explain this colour difference, but they can be divided broadly into two categories:

The colour difference results from a difference in the origin and/or composition of the centaur (see origin below)
The colour difference reflects a different level of space weathering from radiation and/or cometary activity.

As examples of the second category, the reddish colour of Pholus has been explained as a possible mantle of irradiated red organics, whereas Chiron has instead had its ice exposed due to its periodic cometary activity, giving it a blue/grey index. The correlation with activity and color is not certain, however, as the active centaurs span the range of colors from blue (Chiron) to red (166P/NEAT 2001 T4). Alternatively, Pholus may have been only recently expelled from the Kuiper Belt, so that surface transformation processes have not yet taken place.

A. Delsanti et al suggest multiple competing processes: reddening by the radiation, and blushing by collisions.

Spectra

The interpretation of spectra is often ambiguous, related to particle sizes and other factors, but the spectra offer an insight into surface composition. As with the colours, the observed spectra can fit a number of models of the surface.

Water ice signatures have been confirmed on a number of centaurs (including 2060 Chiron, 10199 Chariklo and 5145 Pholus). In addition to the water ice signature, a number of other models have been put forward:

Chariklo's surface has been suggested to be a mixture of tholins (like those detected on Titan and Triton) with amorphous carbon.
Pholus has been suggested to be covered by a mixture of Titan-like tholins, carbon black, olivine and methanol ice.
The surface of 52872 Okyrhoe has been suggested to be a mixture of kerogens, olivines and small percentage of water ice.
8405 Asbolus has been suggested to be a mixture of 15% Triton-like tholins, 8% Titan-like tholin, 37% amorphous carbon and 40% ice tholin.

Chiron, the only centaur with known cometary activity, appears to be the most complex. The spectra observed vary depending on the period of the observation. Water ice signature was detected during a period of low activity and disappeared during high activity.

Similarities to comets

Observations of Chiron in 1988 and 1989 near its perihelion found it to display a coma (a cloud gas and dust evaporating from its surface). It is thus now officially classified as both a comet and an asteroid, although it is far larger than a typical comet and there is some lingering controversy. Other centaurs are being monitored for comet-like activity: so far two, 60558 Echeclus, and 166P/NEAT 2001 T4 have shown such behavior. 166P/NEAT 2001 T4 was discovered while it exhibited a coma, and so is classified as a comet, though its orbit is that of a centaur. 60558 Echeclus was discovered without a coma but recently became active , and so it is now accordingly also classified as both a comet and an asteroid.

Theories of origin

The study of centaur development is rich in recent developments but still hampered by limited physical data. Different models have been put forward for possible origin of centaurs.

Simulations indicate that the orbit of some Kuiper Belt objects can be perturbed, resulting in the object's expulsion so that it becomes a centaur. Scattered disk objects would be dynamically the best candidates for such expulsions, but their colours do not fit the bicoloured nature of the centaurs. Plutinos are a class of Kuiper Belt Object that display a similar bicoloured nature, and there are suggestions that not all plutinos' orbits are as stable as initially thought, due to perturbation by Pluto. Further developments are expected with more physical data on KBOs.

Notable centaurs

Well-known centaurs include:

Name	Year	Discoverer
10199 Chariklo	1997	Spacewatch
8405 Asbolus	1995	Spacewatch (James V. Scotti)
7066 Nessus	1993	Spacewatch (David L. Rabinowitz)
5145 Pholus	1992	Spacewatch (David L. Rabinowitz)
2060 Chiron	1977	Charles T. Kowal