In
ecology,
r/K selection theory relates to the
selection of
traits which promote success in particular environments. The theory originates from work on
island biogeography by the ecologists
Robert MacArthur and
E. O. Wilson.
Overview
In r/K selection theory, selective pressures are
hypothesised to drive
evolution in one of two generalized directions:
r- or
K-selection. These terms, r and K, are derived from standard ecological
algebra, as illustrated in the simple
Verhulst equation of
population dynamics:
where r is the growth rate of the population (N), and K is the carrying capacity of its local environmental setting. Typically, r-selected species exploit empty niches, and produce many offspring, each of which has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood. In contrast, K-selected species are strong competitors in crowded niches, and invest more heavily in fewer offspring, each of which has a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood. In the scientific literature, r-selected species are occasionally referred to as "opportunistic", while K-selected species are described as "equilibrium.
r/K selection and environmental stability
r-selection
In unstable or unpredictable environments r-selection predominates, as the ability to reproduce quickly is crucial, and there is little advantage in adaptations that permit successful competition with other organisms, because the environment is likely to change again. Traits that are thought to be characteristic of r-selection include: high fecundity, small body size, early maturity onset, short generation time, and the ability to disperse offspring widely. Organisms whose life history is subject to r-selection are often referred to as r-strategists or r-selected. Organisms with r-selected traits range from bacteria and diatoms, through insects and weeds, to various semelparous cephalopods and mammals, especially small rodents.
K-selection
In stable or predictable environments K-selection predominates, as the ability to compete successfully for limited resources is crucial, and populations of K-selected organisms typically are very constant and close to the maximum that the environment can bear. Traits that are thought to be characteristic of K-selection include: large body size, long life expectancy, and the production of fewer offspring that require extensive parental care until they mature. Organisms whose life history is subject to K-selection are often referred to as K-strategists or K-selected. Organisms with K-selected traits include large organisms such as elephants, humans and whales, but smaller organisms also use this "strategy" successfully, such as Arctic Terns.
r/K selection as a continuous spectrum
It should be noted that, although some organisms are primarily r- or K-strategists, the majority of organisms fall between these two ecological extremes and may display traits considered characteristic of both ends of the r/K spectrum. For instance, trees have traits such as longevity and strong competitiveness that characterise them as K-strategists. In reproduction, however,
trees typically produce thousands of offspring and disperse them widely, traits characteristic of r-strategists. Similarly,
reptiles such as
sea turtles display both r- and K-traits: although large organisms with long lifespans (should they reach adulthood), they produce large numbers of unnurtured offspring.
r/K selection and ecological succession
In areas of major ecological disruption or sterilisation (such as after a major
volcanic eruption, as at
Krakatoa or
Mount Saint Helens), r- and K-strategists play distinct roles in the
ecological succession that regenerates the
ecosystem. Because of their higher reproductive rates and ecological opportunism, primary colonisers typically are r-strategists and they are followed by a succession of increasingly competitive
flora and
fauna. The ability of an environment to increase energetic content, through photosynthetic capture of solar energy, increases with the increase in complex
biodiversity as r species proliferate to reach a peak possible with K strategies. Eventually a new equilibrium is approached (sometimes referred to as a
climax community), with r-strategists gradually being replaced by K-strategists which are more competitive and better adapted to the emerging micro-environmental characteristics of the
landscape. Typically, biodiversity is maximised at this stage, with introductions of new species resulting in the replacement and
local extinction of
endemic species.
Status of r/K selection theory
Although r/K selection theory became widely used during the 1970s, it also began to attract more critical attention. In particular, an influential review by the ecologist
Stephen Stearns drew attention to gaps in the theory, and to ambiguities in the interpretation of empirical data for testing it.
See also
References
