Definition

Interpersonal therapy (IPT) is a short-term supportive psychotherapy that focuses on the connection between interactions between people and the development of a person's psychiatric symptoms.

Purpose

Interpersonal therapy was initially developed to treat adult depression. It has since been applied to the treatment of depression in adolescents, the elderly, and people with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection. There is an IPT conjoint (couple) therapy for people whose marital disputes contribute to depressive episodes. IPT has also been modified for the treatment of a number of disorders, including substance abuse; bulimia and anorexia nervosa; bipolar disorder; and dysthymia. Research is underway to determine the efficacy of IPT in the treatment of patients with panic disorder or borderline personality disorder; depressed caregivers of patients with traumatic brain injuries; depressed pregnant women; and people suffering from protracted bereavement.

Interpersonal therapy is a descendant of psychodynamic therapy, itself derived from psychoanalysis, with its emphasis on the unconscious and childhood experiences. Symptoms and personal difficulties are regarded as arising from deep, unresolved personality or character problems. Psychodynamic psychotherapy is a long-term method of treatment, with in-depth exploration of past family relationships as they were perceived during the client's infancy, childhood, and adolescence.

There are seven types of interventions that are commonly used in IPT, many of which reflect the influence of psychodynamic psychotherapy: a focus on clients' emotions; an exploration of clients' resistance to treatment; discussion of patterns in clients' relationships and experiences; taking a detailed past history; an emphasis on clients' current interpersonal experiences; exploration of the therapist/client relationship; and the identification of clients' wishes and fantasies. IPT is, however, distinctive for its brevity and its treatment focus. IPT emphasizes the ways in which a person's current relationships and social context cause or maintain symptoms rather than exploring the deep-seated sources of the symptoms. Its goals are rapid symptom reduction and improved social adjustment. A frequent byproduct of IPT treatment is more satisfying relationships in the present.

IPT has the following goals in the treatment of depression: to diagnose depression explicitly; to educate the client about depression, its causes, and the various treatments available for it; to identify the interpersonal context of depression as it relates to symptom development; and to develop strategies for the client to follow in coping with the depression. Because interpersonal therapy is a short-term approach, the therapist addresses only one or two problem areas in the client's current functioning. In the early sessions, the therapist and client determine which areas would be most helpful in reducing the client's symptoms. The remaining sessions are then organized toward resolving these agreed-upon problem areas. This time-limited framework distinguishes IPT from therapies that are open-ended in their exploration. The targeted approach of IPT has demonstrated rapid improvement for patients with problems ranging from mild situational depression to severe depression with a recent history of suicide attempts.

Interpersonal therapy has been outlined in a manual by Klerman and Weissman, which ensures some standardization in the training of interpersonal therapists and their practice. Because of this standardized training format, IPT is not usually combined with other talk therapies. Treatment with IPT, however, is often combined with drug therapy, particularly when the client suffers from such mood disorders as depression, dysthymia, or bipolar disorder.

Precautions

Training programs in interpersonal therapy are still not widely available, so that many practicing therapists base their work on the manual alone without additional supervision. It is unclear whether reading the manual alone is sufficient to provide an acceptable standard of care.

While interpersonal therapy has been adapted for use with substance abusers, it has not demonstrated its effectiveness with this group of patients. Researchers studying patients addicted to opiates or cocaine found little benefit to incorporating IPT into the standard recovery programs. These findings suggest that another treatment method that offers greater structure and direction would be more successful with these patients.

Description

Since the interpersonal therapy model was developed for the treatment of depression and then modified for use with other populations and mental disorders, an understanding of IPT's approach to depression is crucial. Interpersonal therapists focus on the functional role of depression rather than on its etiology or cause, and they look at the ways in which problematic interactions develop when a person becomes depressed. The IPT framework considers clinical depression as having three components: the development of symptoms, which arise from biological, genetic and/or psychodynamic processes; social interactions with other people, which are learned over the course of one's life; and personality, made up of the more enduring traits and behaviors that may predispose a person to depressive symptoms. IPT intervenes at the levels of symptom formation and social functioning, and does not attempt to alter aspects of the client's personality.

Subtypes of IPT

Interpersonal therapy offers two possible treatment plans for persons with depressive disorders. The first plan treats the acute episode of depression by eliminating the current depressive symptoms. This approach requires intervening while the person is in the midst of a depression. The acute phase of treatment typically lasts two to four months with weekly sessions. Many clients terminate treatment at that point, after their symptoms have subsided. Maintenance treatment (IPT-M) is the second treatment plan and is much less commonly utilized than acute treatment. IPT-M is a longer-term therapy based on the principles of interpersonal therapy but with the aim of preventing or reducing the frequency of further depressive episodes. Some clients choose IPT-M after the acute treatment phase. IPT-M can extend over a period of two to three years, with therapy sessions once a month.

Psychoeducation in IPT

Treatment with IPT is based on the premise that depression occurs in a social and interpersonal context that must be understood for improvement to occur. In the first session, the psychiatric history includes a review of the client's current social functioning and current close relationships, their patterns and their mutual expectations. Changes in relationships prior to the onset of symptoms are clarified, such as the death of a loved one, a child leaving home, or worsening marital conflict.

IPT is psychoeducational in nature to some degree. It involves teaching the client about the nature of depression and the ways that it manifests in his or her life and relationships. In the initial sessions, depressive symptoms are reviewed in detail, and the accurate naming of the problem is essential. The therapist then explains depression and its treatment and may explain to the client that he or she has adopted the "sick role." The concept of the "sick role" is derived from the work of a sociologist named Talcott Parsons, and is based on the notion that illness is not merely a condition but a social role that affects the attitudes and behaviors of the client and those around him or her. Over time, the client comes to see that the sick role has increasingly come to govern his or her social interactions.

Identification of problem areas

The techniques of IPT were developed to manage four basic interpersonal problem areas: unresolved grief; role transitions; interpersonal role disputes (often marital disputes); and interpersonal deficits (deficiencies). In the early sessions, the interpersonal therapist and the client attempt to determine which of these four problems is most closely associated with the onset of the current depressive episode. Therapy is then organized to help the client deal with the interpersonal difficulties in the primary problem area. The coping strategies that the client is encouraged to discover and employ in daily life are tailored to his or her individual situation.

UNRESOLVED GRIEF. In normal bereavement, a person experiences symptoms such as sadness, disturbed sleep, and difficulty functioning but these usually resolve in two to four months. Unresolved grief in depressed people is usually either delayed grief, which has been postponed and then experienced long after the loss; or distorted grief, in which there is no felt emotion of sadness but there may be nonemotional symptoms, often physical. If unresolved grief is identified as the primary issue, the goals of treatment are to facilitate the mourning process. Successful therapy will help the client re-establish interests and relationships that can begin to fill the void of what has been lost.

ROLE DISPUTES. Interpersonal role disputes occur when the client and at least one other significant person have differing expectations of their relationship. The IPT therapist focuses on these disputes if they seem stalled or repetitious, or offer little hope of improvement. The treatment goals include helping the client identify the nature of the dispute; decide on a plan of action; and begin to modify unsatisfying patterns, reassess expectations of the relationship, or both. The therapist does not direct the client to one particular resolution of difficulties and should not attempt to preserve unworkable relationships.

ROLE TRANSITIONS. Depression associated with role transitions occurs when a person has difficulty coping with life changes that require new roles. These may be such transitions as retirement, a career change, moving, or leaving home. People who are clinically depressed are most likely to experience role changes as losses rather than opportunities. The loss may be obvious, as when a marriage ends, or more subtle, as the loss of freedom people experience after the birth of a child. Therapy is terminated when a client has given up the old role; expressed the accompanying feelings of guilt, anger, and loss; acquired new skills; and developed a new social network around the new role.

INTERPERSONAL DEFICITS. Interpersonal deficits are the focus of treatment when the client has a history of inadequate or unsupportive interpersonal relationships. The client may never have established lasting or intimate relationships as an adult, and may experience a sense of inadequacy, lack of self-assertion, and guilt about expressing anger. Generally, clients with a history of extreme social isolation come to therapy with more severe emotional disturbances. The goal of treatment is to reduce the client's social isolation. Instead of focusing on current relationships, IPT therapy in this area focuses on the client's past relationships; the present relationship with the therapist; and ways to form new relationships.

IPT in special populations

ELDERLY CLIENTS. In translating the IPT model of depression to work with different populations, the core principles and problem areas remain essentially the same, with some modifications. In working with the elderly, IPT sessions may be shorter to allow for decreased energy levels, and dependency issues may be more prominent. In addition, the therapist may work with an elderly client toward tolerating rather than eliminating long-standing role disputes.

CLIENTS WITH HIV INFECTION. In IPT with HIV-positive clients, particular attention is paid to the clients' unique set of psychosocial stressors: the stigma of the disease; the effects of being gay (if applicable); dealing with family members who may isolate themselves; and coping with the medical consequences of the disease.

ADOLESCENTS. In IPT with adolescents, the therapist addresses such common developmental issues as separation from parents; the client's authority in relationship to parents; the development of new interpersonal relationships; first experiences of the death of a relative or friend; peer pressure; and single-parent families. Adolescents are seen weekly for 12 weeks with once-weekly additional phone contact between therapist and client for the first four weeks of treatment. The parents are interviewed in the initial session to get a comprehensive history of the adolescent's symptoms, and to educate the parents as well as the young person about depression and possible treatments, including a discussion of the need for medication. The therapist refrains from giving advice when working with adolescents, and will primarily use supportive listening, while assessing the client for evidence of suicidal thoughts or problems with school attendance. So far, research does not support the efficacy of antidepressant medication in treating adolescents, though most clinicians will give some younger clients a trial of medication if it appears to offer relief.

CLIENTS WITH SUBSTANCE ABUSE DISORDERS. While IPT has not yet demonstrated its efficacy in the field of substance abuse recovery, a version of IPT has been developed for use with substance abusers. The two goals are to help the client stop or cut down on drug use; and to help the client develop better strategies for dealing with the social and interpersonal consequences of drug use. To meet these goals, the client must accept the need to stop; take steps to manage impulsiveness; and recognize the social contexts of drug purchase and use. Relapse is viewed as the rule rather than the exception in treating substance abuse disorders, and the therapist avoids treating the client in a punitive or disapproving manner when it occurs. Instead, the therapist reminds the client of the fact that staying away from drugs is the client's decision.

CLIENTS WITH EATING DISORDERS. IPT has been extended to the treatment of eating disorders. The IPT therapist does not focus directly on the symptoms of the disorder, but rather, allows for identification of problem areas that have contributed to the emergence of the disorder over time. IPT appears to be useful in treating clients with bulimia whose symptoms are maintained by interpersonal issues, including social anxiety; sensitivity to conflict and rejection; and difficulty managing negative emotions. IPT is helpful in bringing the problems underlying the bingeing and purging to the surface, such as conflict avoidance; difficulties with role expectations; confusion regarding needs for closeness and distance; and deficiencies in solving social problems. IPT also helps people with bulimia to regulate the emotional states that maintain the bulimic behavior.

Anorexia nervosa also appears to be responsive to treatment with IPT. Research indicates that there is a connection between interpersonal and family dysfunction and the development of anorexia nervosa. Therapists disagree as to whether interpersonal dysfunction causes or is caused by anorexia. IPT has been helpful because it is not concerned with the origin but rather seeks to improve the client's interpersonal functioning and thereby decreasing symptoms. IPT's four categories of grief, interpersonal disputes, interpersonal deficits, and role transitions correspond to the core issues of clients with anorexia. Social phobia is another disorder that responds well to IPT therapy.

Aftercare

Interpersonal therapy as a maintenance approach (IPT-M) could be viewed as aftercare for clients suffering from depression. It is designed as a preventive measure by focusing on the period after the acute depression has passed. Typically, once the client is in remission and is symptom-free, he or she takes on more responsibilities and has increased social contact. These changes can lead to increased stress and greater vulnerability to another episode of depression. IPT-M enables clients to reduce the stresses associated with remission and thereby lower the risk of recurrence. The goal of maintenance therapy is to keep the client at his or her current level of functioning. Research has shown that for clients with a history of recurrent depression, total prevention is unlikely, but that maintenance therapy may delay a recurrence.

In general, long-term maintenance psychotherapy by itself is not recommended unless there are such reasons as pregnancy or severe side effects that prevent the client from being treated with medication. IPT-M does, however, seem to be particularly helpful with certain groups of patients, either alone or in combination with medication. Women appear to benefit, due to the importance of social environment and social relations in female gender roles; the effects of the menstrual cycle on symptoms; and complications related to victimization by rape, incest, or battering. IPT is also useful for elderly clients who can't take antidepressants due to intolerable side effects or such medical conditions as autoimmune disorders, cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, or other general medical conditions.

Normal results

The expected outcomes of interpersonal therapy are a reduction or the elimination of symptoms and improved interpersonal functioning. There will also be a greater understanding of the presenting symptoms and ways to prevent their recurrence. For example, in the case of depression, a person will have been educated about the nature of depression; what it looks like for him or her; and the interpersonal triggers of a depressive episode. A person will also leave therapy with strategies for minimizing triggers and for resolving future depressive episodes more effectively. While interpersonal therapy focuses on the present, it can also improve the client's future through increased awareness of preventive measures and strengthened coping skills.

Abnormal results

Research has shown that IPT requires clients' commitment to therapy prior to starting the treatment. If clients are resistant to an educational approach, the results of IPT are generally poor. It has been found that when people do not accept IPT's methods and approach at the outset, they are unlikely to be convinced over the course of therapy and they receive little benefit from treatment. IPT clients appear to do better in therapy if they have confidence in their therapist; therefore, if the initial fit between therapist and client is not good, therapy will often be unsuccessful. A client should listen to his or her instincts early in treatment, and either seek out another interpersonal therapist or find a therapist who uses a different approach— such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, which was also developed specifically for the treatment of depression.

See also Bulimia nervosa; Gender issues in mental health; Grief; Major depressive disorder

Resources

BOOKS

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.4th edition, text revised. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 2000.

Klerman, Gerald L., and others. Interpersonal Psychotherapy of Depression. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1984.

Klerman, Gerald L., M.D., and Myrna M. Weissman, Ph.D., eds. New Applications of Interpersonal Psychotherapy. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc., 1993.

Mufson, Laura, Ph.D. Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depressed Adolescents. New York: Guilford Press, 1993.

PERIODICALS

Apple, Robin F. "Interpersonal Therapy for Bulimia Nervosa." JCLP/In Session: Psychotherapy in Practice 55, no. 6 (1999): 715-725.

Barkham, Michael, and Gillian E. Hardy. "Counselling and interpersonal therapies for depression: towards securing an evidence-base." British Medical Bulletin 57 (2001): 115-132.

Frank, Ellen, Ph.D., and Michael E. Thase, M.D. "Natural History and Preventative Treatment of Recurrent Mood Disorders." Annual Reviews Medicine 50 (1999): 453-468.

House, Allan, D. M. "Brief psychodynamic interpersonal therapy after deliberate self-poisoning reduced suicidal ideation and deliberate self-harm." ACP Journal Club 136 (January/February 2002): 27.

McIntosh, Virginia V. "Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Anorexia Nervosa." International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 (March 2000): 125-139.

Mufson, Laura, Ph.D., and others. "Efficacy of Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depressed Adolescents." Archives of General Psychiatry 56, no. 6 (June 1999): 573-579.

Weissman, Myrna M., Ph.D., and John C. Markowitz, M.D. "Interpersonal Psychotherapy: Current Status." Archives of General Psychiatry 51, no. 8 (August 1994): 599-606.

ORGANIZATIONS

International Society for Interpersonal Psychotherapy. c/o Myrna M. Weissman, Columbia University, 1051 Riverside Drive, Unit 24, New York, NY 10032. <http://interpersonalpsychotherapy.org>.

Holly Scherstuhl, M.Ed.

(SEE: Human Relations)

Although interpersonal communication can encompass oral, written, and nonverbal forms of communication, the term is usually applied to spoken communication that takes place between two or more individuals on a personal, face-to-face level. Some of the types of interpersonal communication that are commonly used within a business organization include staff meetings, formal project discussions, employee performance reviews, and informal chats. Interpersonal communication with those outside of the business organization can take a variety of forms as well, including client meetings, employment interviews, or sales visits. In order to understand the principles of effective interpersonal communication, it is helpful to look at the basic process of communication.

The basic process of communication begins when a fact is observed or an idea formulated by one person. That person (the sender) decides to translate the observation into a message, and then transmits the message through some communication medium to another person (the receiver). The receiver then must interpret the message and provide feedback to the sender indicating that the message has been understood and appropriate action taken.

Unfortunately, errors can be introduced during any phase of the communication process. For example, misunderstandings can occur when the sender does not possess a clear idea of the message he or she is trying to communicate, or has a clear idea but is not able to express it well. Errors in the process can also occur when the receiver does not listen carefully, infers a different meaning than what was intended by the sender, or fails to provide feedback. Ultimately, unclear, inaccurate, or inconsiderate business communication can waste valuable time, alienate employees or customers, and destroy goodwill toward management or the overall business.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION STYLES

In general terms, interpersonal communication can be classified as either one-way or two-way. Oneway communication occurs when the sender transmits information in the form of direction, without any expectation of discussion or feedback. For example, a manager may stop by an employee's desk to inform him that a certain project will be due the following day. One-way communication is faster and easier for the sender—because he or she does not have to deal with potential questions or disagreement from the receiver—but tends to be overused in business situations.

In contrast, two-way communication involves the sharing of information between two or more parties in a constructive exchange. For example, a manager may hold a staff meeting in order to establish the due dates for a number of projects. Engaging in two-way communication indicates that the sender is receptive to feedback and willing to provide a response. Although it is more difficult and time-consuming for the sender than one-way communication, it also ensures a more accurate understanding of the message.

In addition to being classified as one-way or two-way, interpersonal communication can also be broken down into a variety of styles, or specialized sets of behaviors. Bateman and Zeithaml identified six main styles of interpersonal communication that are used in business settings: controlling, egalitarian, structuring, dynamic, relinquishing, and withdrawal. "Different individuals use different communication styles, " the authors noted. "A communicator should realize that some styles are more effective than others in certain situations."

The controlling style is a form of one-way communication that is used to direct others and gain their compliance. Managers using this style usually do not want feedback, and they tend to employ power and even manipulation to reinforce their message. Although the controlling style can be effective when it is used on occasion by respected individuals, particularly in times of crisis, it can also alienate workers. In contrast, the egalitarian style is a form two-way communication that involves sharing information rather than directing behavior. It is used to stimulate others to express their ideas and opinions in order to reach a mutual understanding. In most situations—particularly when cooperation is needed—it is more effective than the controlling style.

The structuring style of interpersonal communication is used to establish schedules or impose organization. Managers using this style would be likely to cite company standards or rules. Though the structuring style may be necessary to inform others of goals or procedures when complex tasks must be performed by a group, it should usually be counterbalanced with the egalitarian style. The dynamic style is a high-energy approach that uses inspirational pleas to motivate another person to take action. This style can be effective in crisis situations, but it is generally ineffective when the receivers do not have enough knowledge or experience to take the required action.

The relinquishing style of interpersonal communication is deferential rather than directive. It is highly receptive to the ideas of others, to the point of shifting responsibility for communication to the receiver. For example, a manger employing this style might allow her staff to discuss and develop the final solution to a problem while making little comment. This style is particularly effective when the receivers have the knowledge, experience, and willingness to assume responsibility. The withdrawal style is more like a lack of communication. Managers using this style try to avoid using their influence and may indicate a disinterest or unwillingness to participate in the discussion.

Finally, an often overlooked element of interpersonal communication is being a good receiver, which involves developing listening skills. Good listening skills can be vital in finding a solution to grievances or even in making sales calls. Listening involves showing an interest in the speaker, concentrating on the message, and asking questions to ensure understanding. One useful listening technique is reflection, or attempting to repeat and clarify the other person's message rather than immediately responding to it with a message of your own. Used correctly, reflection can allow managers to view issues from their employees' point of view. Some other keys to effective listening include: keeping an open mind rather than allowing emotions to intervene; finding a part of the subject that may have application to your own experience; and resisting distractions such as the speaker's mannerisms or clothing. It also helps to be prepared for the discussion, to take notes as needed, and to summarize the speaker's statements.

Strong interpersonal communication skills, utilizing a variety of styles and techniques, are particularly important for small business owners who must supervise the work of others. Bateman and Zeithaml described some of the characteristics of supervisors who receive high marks from their employees. First, these managers tend to communicate more than other managers, explaining the reasons behind decisions and providing advance warning of changes. Second, they tend to employ an egalitarian rather than controlling style when communicating with subordinates, asking for instead of demanding their compliance. Third, they tend to take others' needs and feelings into account when communicating. Finally, most effective managers are good listeners, giving careful consideration to employee concerns and taking the time to respond to questions and complaints.

FURTHER READING:

Bateman, Thomas S., and Carl P. Zeithaml. Management: Function and Strategy. Irwin, 1990.

Golen, Steven. Effective Business Communication. U.S. Small Business Administration, 1989.

Koonce, Richard. "Language, Sex, and Power: Women and Men in the Workplace." Training and Development. September 1997.

Murphy, Herta A., and Herbert W. Hildebrandt. Effective Business Communications. McGraw-Hill, 1991.

Smart, Karl L, and Carol Barnum. "Communication in Cross-Functional Teams." Technical Communication. February 2000.

In the contexts of sociology, social psychology, and popular culture, the concept of interpersonal relationships involves social associations, connections, or affiliations between two or more people. Such persons may interact overtly, covertly, face-to-face; or may remain effectively unknown to each other (as in a virtual community whose members maintain anonymity and do not socialize outside of a chat-room).

Analyzing interpersonal relationships

Sometimes an observer can detect explicit interactions that define an interpersonal relationship — such as body-language or dialogue. Erving Goffman and his followers see any public appearance as a ritual built from a "ceremonial idiom".

On the other hand, implicit interactions include standing in a shopping-line or in an emergency-room.

Human interactions often mix the explicit and implicit interaction modes.

An interpersonal interaction can constitute a social transaction of the form "you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours". Some transactions facilitate further interaction between the participants and some act as Interpersonal violence consists of action, interaction and transaction — without necessarily terminating the relationship.

Context has great importance in meaningfully describing any particular interaction between people. Meaning itself can result from interpersonal interactions, most significantly in the developmental stage of life when one interacts with peers, parents and teachers. Socialization transmits culture. Culture — in the light of social constructionism — forms how people construct their world and the relationships in it.

Analysts of interpersonal relationships (namely, any functioning humans) may view a relationship as focused (such as the sales-oriented relationship between a sales assistant and a customer) or as unfocused (as between passengers on a bus). People traveling to a football-match share a relationship — whether they support the same team or opposing teams. The significance of the relationship may not become apparent until they cheer or boo. In each case culture will tend to define the forms of both accepted and unacceptable interactions.

Interpersonal relationships vary in their degree of self-disclosure, feedback, power and respect — to name but a few aspects. They vary in the extent to which culture and language define or construct them. They vary in the degree to which people can question, challenge or change relationships of relevance to themselves; and that degree of changeability itself can demonstrate power-differentials in a variety of interpersonal relationships and settings.

Relationships vary in the degree to which both intimacy and sharing occur — implying the discovery or establishment of common ground over time. They may or may not center around things shared in common.

The concept of relationship

The term "relationship", as applied to personal life, came into general use only twenty or thirty years ago, as did the idea that there is a need for "intimacy" or "commitment" in personal life.

If valid, this view raises questions as to what has changed — and how — to bring about the result where interpersonal relationships receive so much attention — both in academia and in popular lore.

Teens and parents go through a stage where relationships are lost or broken up by the changes kids go through as they mature into adults.

Over 90% of all failed relationships result from a lack of honest communication and awareness.

Interpersonal relationships and other fields of study

The meaning of a particular relationship depends on the definition of the situation. The work of the sociologist Erving Goffman — particularly in his book The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life — suggests the degree to which one manages presentation of the self in every interaction.

This points to the ultimate source of interpersonal relationship in intrapersonal communication. What lies within each person and how each person communicates internally provides the source of meaning, of self-definition and of self-presentation in interpersonal relationships.

Martin Buber has written eloquently on this aspect of dialogue — with oneself and with an Other.

Possible stages in the course of interpersonal relationships

1) Contact:

a) Perceptual: noticing how parties look at each other and their body-language.

b) Interactional cues: nodding, maintaining eye-contact, etc.

c) Invitational: encouraging the potential relationship (for example, suggesting a later meeting involving some social lubricant such as coffee)

d) Avoidance strategies: if one person discloses and the other does not: minimal response, lack of eye-contact, etc.

2) Involvement:

a) Feelers: hints or questions (for example: asking about family)

b) Intensifying strategies: furthering the relationship (for example meeting an old friend, bringing the other to meet family, becoming more affectionate, etc.)

c) Public: parties seen in public together often (if in a romantic relationship, may involve holding hands)

3) Intimacy: parties very close; may have exchanged some sort of personal belonging or something that represents further commitment. (For example, a promise ring in a romantic relationship or a friendship-necklace identifying two people as best friends)

4) Deterioration: things start to fall apart. People move out of the so-called "honeymoon stage", NRE, or limerence and start to notice flaws. The way they address this determines the fate of the relationship (see relationship counseling).

Types of interpersonal relationships

Examples of categories of personal relationships may include:

• kinship relationships (including family relationships) involve relating to someone else:
• genetically (consanguinity, as for example in fatherhood, motherhood)
• through marriage (affinity, as for example as a father-in-law, mother-in-law, uncle by marriage, aunt by marriage)
• formalized intimate relationships or long-term relationships recognized by law and formalized through public ceremony (for example, the relationships of marriage and of civil union)
• non-formalized intimate relationships or long-term relationships such as loving relationships or romantic relationships with or without living together; with the "other person" often called lover, boyfriend or girlfriend (as distinct from just a male or female friend), or "significant other". If the partners live together, the relationship may resemble marriage, with the parties possibly called "husband" and "wife". (Scottish common law can regard such couples as such after a time. Long-term relationships in other countries can become known as common-law marriages, although they may have no special status in law. The term mistress may refer in a somewhat old-fashioned way to a female lover of an already married or unmarried man. A mistress may have the status of an "official mistress" (in French maîtresse en titre); as exemplified by the career of Madame de Pompadour.
• soulmates, individuals intimately drawn to one another through a favorable "meeting of minds" and who find mutual acceptance and/or understanding with one another. Soulmates may feel themselves bonded together for a lifetime; and hence may become sexual partners — but not necessarily.
• casual relationships, sexual relationships extending beyond "one-night stands" that exclusively consist of sexual behavior; one can label the participants as "friends with benefits" when limited to considering sexual intercourse, or regard them as sexual partners in a wider sense.
• Platonic love, an affectionate relationship into which the sexual element does not enter, especially in cases where one might easily assume otherwise.
• friendship, which consists of mutual love, trust, respect, and (often unconditional) acceptance; and usually implies the discovery or establishment of common ground between the individuals involved; see also internet friendship and pen-pal.
• brotherhood and sisterhood: individuals united in a common cause or having a common interest, which may involve formal membership in a club, organization, association, society, lodge, fraternity or sorority. This type of interpersonal relationship relates to the comradeship/camaraderie of fellow soldiers in peace or war.
• partners or co-workers in a profession, business, or a common workplace. Compare team.
• participation in a community, for example, a community of interest or practice.
• association, simply knowing someone by introduction or knowing someone by interaction.

Factors in establishing and maintaining relationships

The discovery or establishment of common ground between individuals provides a fundamental component for enduring interpersonal relationships. Loss of common ground, which may happen over time, may tend to end interpersonal relationships.

An observer of relationships can consider the motivation of each participant in the relationship. Does X love Y — or simply love what Y does for X? And vice versa.

In a longitudinal research study, psychotherapist Emily Kensington asked one hundred couples, “What do you love most about one another?" Answers indicating little depth generally correlated with the relationship experiencing "negative" outcomes. According to hearts-and-kisses.com, replies such "Because she's pretty" or "he's fun" emerge as negative predictors, indicating surface attraction. Relationships can evolve from the meeting of facile needs to a stable, committed companionship, and couples that can identify their attraction to positive partner-qualities such as compassion, intelligence, and an ability and willingness to communicate effectively have "better" outcomes. Self-aware couples have a greater ability to recognize areas for potential growth, and to develop a plan to work on their relationship jointly.

Each relationship-type demands essential skills, and without these skills more "advanced" relationships cannot develop. Systemic coaching advocates a hierarchy of relationships, from friendship to global order. Expertise in each relationship-type (in this hierarchy) requires the skills of all previous relationship-types. (For example partnership requires friendship and teamwork skills).

Interpersonal relationships through consanguinity and affinity can persist despite the absence of love, affection, or common ground. With such relationships within prohibited degrees, sexual intimacy becomes the taboo of incest.

Legal sanction reinforces and regularizes marriages and civil unions as perceived "respectable" building-blocks of society. In the United States of America, for example, the de-criminalization of homosexual sexual relations in the Supreme Court decision, Lawrence v. Texas (2003) facilitated the "mainstreaming" of gay long-term relationships, and broached the possibility of the legalization of same-sex marriages in that country.

Intimate relationships often (but not always) involve an implicit or explicit agreement on monogamy — an agreement that the partners will not have sex with any third party. The extent to which society and partners may accept physical intimacy with other people varies. For example, a husband may react more favorably to his wife demonstrating physical affection with a female friend than to a similar demonstration with a male friend (see also jealousy).

Friendship may involve some degree of transitivity: one may become a friend of an existing friend's friend. However, if two people have a sexual relationship with the same person, they may become competitors rather than friends. Accordingly, sexual behavior with the sexual partner of a friend may damage the friendship. See love triangle.

Sexual relations between two friends may alter that relationship: either by "taking it to the next level" or by severing it. Sexual partners may also class as friends: the sexual relationship may either enhance or depreciate the friendship.

The rise of popular psychology has led to an explosion of concern about one's interpersonal relationships (often simply called: "relationships"). Intimate relationships receive particular attention in this context, but sociology recognises many other interpersonal links of greater or less duration and/or significance.

One need not always regard relationships as necessarily healthy. Unhealthy examples include abusive relationships and codependence.

Some sociologists recognize a hierarchy of forms of activity and interpersonal relations, divided into:

• behavior
• action
• social behavior
• social action
• social contact
• social interaction
• social relation

Theories concerning interpersonal relationships

Social psychology and related spheres propose several approaches to the study and fostering of interpersonal relationships, among them:

• closure
• trust, as trust between parties can become mutual. This may lead to enduring relationships.
• social exchange theory, which interprets relationships in terms of exchanged benefits. People will regard relationships in the light of the rewards of the relationship, as well as rewards they may potentially receive in alternate relationships.
• systemic coaching, which analyzes relationships as expressions of a perceived human need to give and receive love. Transferences, entanglements and substitution can complicate relationships. Systemic coaching claims to offer solutions for many difficulties in relationships.
• equity theory, which stems from a criticism of social exchange theory. Proponents argue that people care about more than just maximizing rewards: they also allegedly want fairness and equity in their relationships.
• relational dialectics, which regards relationships not as static entities, but as continuing processes, forever changing. This approach sees constant tension in the negotiation of three main issues: autonomy vs. connection, novelty vs. predictability, and openness vs. closedness.
• attachment styles, which analyze relationships in yet another way. Proponents of attachment styles argue that styles developed in childhood continue influential throughout adulthood, influencing the roles people adopt in relationships.
• socionics and some other theories of psychological compatibility consider interpersonal relationships as at least partly dependent on the psychological types of partners.

See also

Main list: List of basic relationship topics

• Relational disorder (proposed DSM-V new diagnosis)
• Adultery
• Affection
• Alternatives to marriage project
• Concubinage
• Courtship (Dating)
• empathy
• Forms of activity and interpersonal relations
• Historical pederastic couples
• Human bonding
• Interpersonal attraction
• Interpersonal communication
• Monogamy, polyamory, polyandry, polygamy, endogamy, exogamy
• Single (relationship)
• Social interaction
• Social rejection
• Terms of endearment

Bibliography

• Anthony Lauria: "Respeto, Relajo and Inter-Personal Relations in Puerto Rico" Anthropological Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. 2 (Apr., 1964), pp. 53-67 doi:10.2307/3316848

References

External links

• "What are friends for?" - three-part article in UK Guardian newspaper
• One Plus One