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Hurricane Donna

Hurricane Donna in the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season was a Cape Verde-type hurricane which moved across the Leeward Islands, Puerto Rico, Hispanola, Cuba, The Bahamas, and every state on the East Coast of the United States. Hurricane Donna holds the record for retaining major hurricane status (Category 3 or greater on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale) in the Atlantic Basin for the longest period of time on record. For nine days, September 2 to September 11, when Donna consistently had maximum sustained winds of at least . From the moment it became a tropical depression to when it dissipated after becoming an extratropical storm, Donna roamed the Atlantic from August 29 to September 14, a total of 17 days. While crossing the Atlantic Donna briefly achieved Category 5 strength. The cyclone caused billions of US dollars in damages and killed an estimated 364 people.

Meteorological history

The precursor to this storm was a well-organized tropical disturbance which moved offshore Africa on August 28 and 29th. The crash of an airliner at Dakar on the 29th was attributed to this disturbance. Before reaching the Cape Verde Islands, the system was well enough organized to be considered a tropical depression on the 29th. On the 30th, Donna had strengthened into a tropical storm. Moving westward, intensification continued, bringing the cyclone to hurricane strength on September 1. For nine days, September 2 to 11, Donna consistently had maximum sustained winds of at least as it moved west-northwest, briefly briefly achieving Category 5 strength. Donna passed through the northeasternmost Leeward Islands, subsequently missing Puerto Rico by to the north. The hurricane then skirted the Cuban coast on the 9th before heading for the Florida Keys.

The storm made its first Florida landfall in the community of Marathon, centered on Key Vaca in the middle Florida Keys. At the time, Donna was a Category 4 hurricane with estimated maximum sustained winds of and gusts of up to , with a minimum central pressure of 27.46 inHg (930 mbar).

The storm crossed into the Gulf of Mexico and its course shifted northward. Donna paralleled the southwest coast of Florida until it made a second Florida landfall between Naples and Fort Myers, again as a Category 4 hurricane. After crossing the Florida peninsula, it continued and moved back out into the Atlantic Ocean near Daytona Beach. Donna headed up the East Coast, and made another landfall at Topsail Beach, North Carolina. It then finished its trip by heading into New England, with a final landfall across Long Island, New York.

Donna, unlike Hurricane Charley which followed a similar track in 2004, was a slow-moving storm. Donna dumped to of rain in the southern half of Florida, along with about seven inches in the northern half. The three weeks prior to Donna's landfall produced a to surplus in rain before the hurricane hit, exacerbating the problem. From the moment it became a tropical depression to when it dissipated after becoming an extratropical storm, Donna roamed the Atlantic from August 29 to September 14, a total of 17 days.

Preparations

At noon on September 3, a hurricane watch was issued for the Leeward Islands. At 6 p.m., this watch was upgraded to a warning, and hurricane watches were raised for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. At 6 a.m. on the 4th, the watch was upgraded to a warning. By 6 a.m. on the 5th, hurricane warnings were dropped for the Leeward Islands. At 9 a.m., southwest Puerto Rico and the Virgin Island's hurricane warnings were downgraded to gale warning. By noon, all remaining hurricane warnings for Puerto Rico were changed to gale warnings. At 7 a.m. on the 7th, hurricane conditions were considered possible for the southeast Bahamas, with preliminary caution raised for the central Bahamas. At 1:30 p.m., a hurricane watch was issued for the Florida coast from Key West to Melbourne. Routes to Fort Lauderdale Beach were blocked off prior to the storm's arrival. At 11 a.m. on the 8th, hurricane conditions were considered possible for the Cuban coast west of Cayo Romano, and hurricane watches were upgraded to hurricane warnings from Key West to Key Largo, with hurricane watched raised on the west coast northward to Fort Myers. At 5 p.m., gale warnings were issued from Key Largo to Vero Beach.

On the 9th at 11 a.m., hurricane warnings were in effect for southern Florida from Fort Lauderdale to Punta Gorda, while new gale warnings were raised from Punta Gorda to St. Marks and Lake Okeechobee. At 1 p.m., a hurricane watch was in effect from Punta Gorda to Cedar Key while a hurricane watch continued between Fort Lauderdale and Melbourne. By 11 p.m., hurricane warnings were extended northward to Melbourne and Clearwater, as well as Lake Okeechobee. At 5 a.m. on the 10th, hurricane warnings were extended northward to Daytona Beach and Cedar Key. Gale warnings were issued from Daytona Beach to Savannah. At 5 p.m., gale warnings were extended northward to Myrtle Beach. At 11 p.m., hurricane warnings were lowered in the Florida Keys but extended northward from Daytona Beach to Savannah, Georgia.

At 11 a.m. on the 11th, all warnings were lowered south of Vero Beach and along the Florida west coast, while hurricane warnings were extended northward from Savannah to Myrtle Beach. At 5 p.m., hurricane warnings were lowered south of Fernandina Beach, while they were extended northward to include the entire North Carolina coast. Gale warnings were issued northward to Cape May. At 9 p.m., hurricane warnings were extended northward to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, while gale warnings and a hurricane watch were issued northward to Eastport, Maine. Ships at dock in Newport, Rhode Island were towed out into the bay to weather the storm. On the 12th at 5 a.m., hurricane warnings were extended northward to Eastport, and dropped south of Cape Hatteras. At 7 a.m., hurricane warnings were lowered south of Cape Charles. At 2 p.m., hurricane warnings were dropped south of Cape May. At 5 p.m., hurricane warnings were discontinued south of Manasquan, New Jersey. At 8 p.m., hurricane warnings expired south of Block Island. By 11 p.m., all hurricane warnings had been lowered.

Impact

Hurricane Donna was a very destructive storm given that it affected numerous countries and island groups. About 364 people were killed by the hurricane, 148 direct and 216 indirect.

Leeward Islands

A weather station in St. Maarten reported wind gusts up to and a 952 pressure reading while St. Thomas reported a gust as the center of Donna passed north of the island. In Puerto Rico, Donna produced storm tides between to .

Donna killed seven people and caused minimal damage when it passed though the Virgin Islands. A large portion of eastern Puerto Rico received over of rainfall. Although the center of the storm was offshore, the outer rain bands brought heavy rains that caused serious flash flooding which killed 107 people (85 of them in Humacao).

Bahamas

Turks Island escaped the brunt of the hurricane, receiving only to winds and of rain which fell in a twelve hour period. However the rest of the Bahamas were not as lucky as the hurricane tore away the anemometer in Ragged Island and forced several people to seek shelter at a missile base. North Caicos reported of rainfall in 24 hours. Despite the damage there were no deaths and damage estimates are not available.

Florida

Donna was the first hurricane to affect Miami since October 1950. Highest sustained winds were at Fort Myers and at Key West. Florida suffered significant losses from Donna, more than any other state. Damage in the Keys at the original point of landfall was most severe, where Donna's winds and storm surge destroyed many buildings and vessels. A storm surge of was reported from Marathon. Portions of southern and western Florida received over of rainfall from the hurricane. A total of 35% of the state's grapefruit crop was lost, 10% of the orange and tangerine crop was lost, and the avocado crop was almost completely wiped out. Donna was the most damaging tropical cyclone to impact Florida up to that time. The day after the storm hit, President Dwight D. Eisenhower declared a disaster area from the Keys up to Central Florida.

Elsewhere in the East

Although weaker, it caused considerable and widespread damage from the Carolinas through New York. Beaufort County, South Carolina, for example, saw many trees uprooted, power lines downed, homes unroofed, piers destroyed, and significant damage to corn and soybean crops. Wind gusts of were reported from the Eastern Shore of Chesapeake Bay. Maximum sustained winds of with gusts of were reported from Long Island and Rhode Island. Storm surge values reached in New York Harbor, which wrecked area piers.

Blue Hill Observatory in Massachusetts reported gusts to over . The strong southwest winds associated with Donna at Chatham, in combination with very little rainfall, led to a significant deposit of salt spray which whitewashed southwest-facing windows. Many trees and shrubs saw their leaves brown due to the salt. A swath of to of rain fell from North Carolina northeast into Maine. Fifty people were reported dead in the United States, with damages totalling to $3.35 billion (2006 USD). Donna crossed directly over Texas Tower #4, causing severe damage to the structure. Donna was one of the few hurricanes to affect every state along the East Coast.

Aftermath

In Marathon, a large reconstruction program rehabilitated the key by Christmas. Coral reefs were damaged in the Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary by the hurricane. Donna caused a significant negative impact on aquatic life in north Florida Bay. Marine life was either stranded by retreating salt water which had been driven inland or killed by muddied waters in its wake. Oxygen depletion due to those perishing in the hurricane caused additional mortality. Although salinities returned to normal within six weeks, dissolved oxygen concentrations remained quite low for a longer time frame. Marine life was scarce for several months in areas of greatest oxygen depletion. Sports fishing in the area took a few months to recover. Juvenile pink shrimp moved from their estuarine nursery grounds into deeper water about offshore, where they subsequently captured by fishermen. A Caspian Tern was swept up the North American coast well to the north of its traditional breeding grounds, to Nova Scotia, which was witnessed four hours after the storm went by Digby Neck.

Retirement

Because of its devastating impacts and high mortalities, the name Donna was retired and will never be used for an Atlantic hurricane again; the name was replaced by Dora in 1964.