James, Henry, 1811-82, American student of religion and social problems, b. Albany, N.Y.; father of the philosopher William James and of the novelist Henry James. He rebelled against the strict Calvinist theology of his family and of Princeton Theological Seminary, to which he was sent, and sought a personal solution. Swedenborg's teachings opened for him a way and provided the framework for his own thought as expressed in Substance and Shadow; or, Morality and Religion in Their Relation to Life (1863), Society the Redeemed Form of Man, and the Earnest of God's Omnipotence in Human Nature (1879), and other books. He later developed a social philosophy based upon the principles of Charles Fourier. He was a close friend of many literary figures, including Ralph Waldo Emerson and Thomas Carlyle.

James, Henry, 1843-1916, American novelist and critic, b. New York City. A master of the psychological novel, James was an innovator in technique and one of the most distinctive prose stylists in English.

He was the son of Henry James, Sr., a Swedenborgian theologian, and the brother of William James, the philosopher. Educated privately by tutors in Europe and the United States, he entered Harvard law school in 1862. Encouraged by William Dean Howells and other members of the Cambridge literary circle in the 1860s, James wrote critical articles and reviews for the Atlantic Monthly, a periodical in which several of his novels later appeared in serial form. He made several trips to Europe, and while there he became associated with such notable literary figures as Turgenev and Flaubert. In 1876 he settled permanently in London and became a British subject in 1915.

James devoted himself to literature and travel, gradually assuming the role of detached spectator and analyst of life. In his early novels, including Roderick Hudson (1876), The American (1877), Daisy Miller (1879), and The Portrait of a Lady (1881), as well as some of his later work, James contrasts the sophisticated, though somewhat staid, Europeans with the innocent, eager, though often brash, Americans. In the novels of his middle period, The Bostonians (1886), The Princess Casamassima (1886), and The Tragic Muse (1890), he turned his attention from the international theme to reformers, revolutionaries, and political aspirants.

During and after an unsuccessful six-year attempt (1889-95) to win recognition as a playwright, James wrote a series of short, powerful novels, including The Aspern Papers (1888), What Maisie Knew (1897), The Spoils of Poynton (1897), The Turn of the Screw (1898), and The Sacred Fount (1901). In his last and perhaps his greatest novels, The Wings of the Dove (1902), The Ambassadors (1903), and The Golden Bowl (1904), all marked by a return to the international theme, James reached his highest development in the portrayal of the intricate subtleties of character and in the use of a complex, convoluted style to express delicate nuances of thought.

Perhaps more than any previous writer, James refined the technique of narrating a novel from the point of view of a character, thereby laying the foundations of modern stream of consciousness fiction. The series of critical prefaces he wrote for the reissue of his novels (beginning in 1907) won him a reputation as a superb technician. He is also famous for his finely wrought short stories, including "The Beast in the Jungle" and "The Real Thing," which are masterpieces of the genre. In addition to fiction and literary criticism, James wrote several books on travel and three autobiographical works. He never married.

Atkinson, Henry, 1782-1842, American army officer, b. North Carolina. After service as a colonel in the War of 1812, he was a commander in the West and led two expeditions (1819, 1825) to the Yellowstone River. He was general commander of forces in the Black Hawk War and later superintended removal of the Winnebago to Iowa. Jefferson Barracks (near St. Louis) and Fort Leavenworth were begun under his direction.

Wilson, Henry, 1812-75, American politician, Vice President of the United States (1873-75), b. Farmington, N.H. At 21 he legally changed his name from Jeremiah Jones Colbath, and as Henry Wilson he apprenticed himself to a cobbler at Natick, Mass. Wilson became successful as a shoe manufacturer and as a Whig politician, serving as a state legislator for most of the years from 1841 to 1852. His strong abolitionist convictions led him to leave the Whigs in 1848, when he helped organize the Free Soil party. Elected (1855) to the U.S. Senate by the Know-Nothing legislature, Wilson finally joined (1856) the Republican party because of its clear opposition to slavery. He was a leading radical Republican for the rest of his career. During the Civil War he was chairman of the Senate committee on military affairs. The "Natick cobbler," as he was called, was elected Vice President on the ticket headed by Ulysses S. Grant in 1872, but he died before completing his term. Wilson wrote the History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America (3 vol., 1872-77), the first major history of the coming of the Civil War.

Brooke, Henry, c.1703-1783, Irish author. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, he studied law in London before returning to Ireland permanently. In 1735 he published his long philosophical poem, Universal Beauty. His discursive novel, The Fool of Quality (5 vol., 1767-70), which was inspired by the theories of Rousseau, reveals Brooke's acute awareness of the political and social situation of his day.

Armstrong, Henry, 1912-88, American boxer, b. Columbus, Miss. He was originally named Henry Jackson. He began his professional career in 1931, and soon became known as a strong and tireless puncher. Armstrong won the featherweight championship from Petey Sarron in 1936, the welterweight title from Barney Ross in 1938, and in his next fight (10 weeks later) he defeated Lou Ambers to win the lightweight crown. He thus held three titles simultaneously; this prompted the National Boxing Association to rule that a champion must vacate a title if he wins another. In his career (1931-45), Armstrong won 144 matches, scored 97 knockouts, and lost 19 fights. After his retirement he was ordained a minister and devoted himself to helping underprivileged youth; Youthtown at Desert Wells, Ariz., was built through his efforts.

Taube, Henry, 1915-, American inorganic chemist, b. Saskatchewan, Canada. He earned his Ph.D. at Berkeley, became a professor of chemistry at Univ. of Chicago (1952), and then moved to Stanford Univ. in 1962. He won the 1983 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his pioneering research in inorganic chemistry and the study of the rates and mechanisms of transition-metal coordination compounds. Taube determined that certain octahedral complexes containing transition-metals are inert while others are labile, depending upon whether they undergo ligand-substitution reactions rapidly or slowly.

Sargent, Henry, 1770-1845, American genre and portrait painter, b. Gloucester, Mass., studied in London with Benjamin West. He was skilled in the rendering of textures and accessories. Fine examples are his two conversation pieces The Tea Party and The Dinner Party (c.1840-42; Mus. of Fine Arts, Boston). The portrait of Peter Faneuil at Faneuil Hall in Boston is also attributed to him.

Lee, Henry, 1756-1818, American Revolutionary soldier, known as Light-Horse Harry Lee, b. Prince William co., Va. He was a cousin of Arthur Lee, Francis L. Lee, Richard H. Lee, and William Lee and was the father of Robert E. Lee. As a cavalry commander he established an enviable record in the Revolution. He first gained wide notice for his capture of the fort at Paulus Hook (now in Jersey City), N.J., on Aug. 19, 1779. His service under Nathanael Greene after 1780 in the Carolina campaign was notable for daring and brilliance and he distinguished himself at Guilford Courthouse and Eutaw Springs. After the war he was elected (1785) to Congress. He favored a stronger government and in 1788 was a leader in the struggle to have Virginia ratify the Constitution. He was (1791-94) governor of Virginia, and in 1794 he commanded the troops who suppressed the Whiskey Rebellion. A Federalist Congressman (1799-1801), he was author of the description of George Washington as "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen" in the resolutions on the first President's death. A poor business manager, Lee was imprisoned (1808-9) for debt. In 1812 he was severely injured when an angry mob dragged Alexander Hanson, Lee, and others from a jail where they had gone for protection after Hanson's Federalist newspaper had denounced President Madison and the War of 1812. He wrote Memoirs of the War in the Southern Department (1812, repr. 1869 with a biographical sketch by Robert E. Lee).

Bouquet, Henry, 1719-65, British army officer in the French and Indian Wars. A French Swiss, he came to America in 1756 and distinguished himself as second in command to Gen. John Forbes in the successful expedition (1758) against Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh). In Pontiac's Rebellion he decisively defeated the Native Americans in a hotly contested battle at Bushy Run (Aug., 1763) near Pittsburgh. In 1764, Bouquet, on an expedition into the Ohio country, forced the Shawnee and other indigenous people to lay down their arms. He was brigadier general commanding the Southern Dist. at his death.

Laurens, Henry, 1724-92, political leader in the American Revolution, b. Charleston, S.C. A wealthy merchant and planter, he was, in the years preceding the Revolution, an opponent of British colonial policy, although he disapproved of the radical policies of some colonists. Late in 1774 he was elected to the first provincial congress of South Carolina and was an active advocate of independence. He was later a member of the Continental Congress (1777-80) and its president (1777-78). In 1780, while en route to the Netherlands with the draft of a possible U.S.-Dutch treaty prepared by William Lee, Laurens was captured by the British and was imprisoned in the Tower of London and later exchanged (1782) for General Cornwallis; the treaty was used as a reason for war between Great Britain and the Netherlands. Laurens was a commissioner to negotiate the Treaty of Paris (1783) but arrived too late to take much part in the negotiations. Publication of his papers was begun in 1968.

Lawes, Henry, 1596-1662, English composer. Both he and his brother William were prominent musician-composers, and Henry served the royal family in various capacities until the civil war. As music tutor in the family of the Earl of Bridgewater, he became acquainted with the great poets of the time. He wrote the music for Milton's masque Comus (1634) and for Carew's Coelum Britannicum (1633).

Murger, Henry, 1822-61, French poet and novelist. His Scènes de la vie de Bohème (1845-49; tr., 1905, 1930), like many of his works, is a romantic and sentimental account of the life of struggling writers and artists. It provided the story for Puccini's opera La Bohème.

Walke, Henry, 1808-96, American naval officer, b. Princess Anne co., Va. Walke was appointed a midshipman in 1827, served in the Mexican War, and was later made a commander. In wisely removing the garrison at Pensacola, Fla., to New York early in 1861, he technically violated orders, but a court-martial sentence of admonishment was lightly carried out. Walke's subsequent service on the Mississippi River was outstanding. His gunboats supported Ulysses S. Grant in that general's first Civil War battle, at Belmont, Mo. (Nov., 1861), and as commander of the Carondelet he had an important part in the victories at Forts Henry and Donelson, Island No. 10, Fort Pillow, and Memphis. Promoted to captain (July, 1862), he commanded the Lafayette, an ironclad ram, in the Vicksburg campaign. From Sept., 1863, to the end of the war, Walke commanded the Sacramento in a search for Confederate cruisers in the Atlantic. He retired (1871) as a rear admiral.

Wallace, Henry, 1836-1916, American agricultural leader, b. West Newton, Pa., grad. Jefferson (later Washington and Jefferson) College, 1859. He studied (1861-63) theology and went (1863) to Iowa as a home missionary of the United Presbyterian Church. He later turned to farming, pioneering in several aspects of agriculture, and began writing agricultural articles for the Iowa Homestead. He was made its managing editor, but his efforts in the early 1890s to curb railroad powers led to his removal from the editorship. In 1895 he joined with his son Henry Cantwell Wallace in founding the newspaper that later was called Wallaces' Farmer. This journal soon won recognition as a leading agricultural newspaper of the country. "Uncle Henry," as he was affectionately known, was a popular speaker and a counselor of Republican statesmen. He served (1908) as a member of President Theodore Roosevelt's Country Life Commission. Wallace's works include Clover Farming (1898) and Letters to the Farm Folk (1915). His autobiography, Uncle Henry's Own Story of His Life (1917), dealt chiefly with his boyhood.

Ware, Henry, 1764-1845, American clergyman, instrumental in the founding of Unitarianism in the United States, b. Sherborn, Mass., grad. Harvard, 1785. As pastor (1787-1805) of the First Church, Hingham, Mass., he became known for his liberal inclinations. His appointment in 1805 as Hollis professor of divinity at Harvard aroused opposition in the orthodox division of the Congregational churches. The questions brought into prominence by his appointment helped to hasten the separation of the Unitarians from the Congregationalists and change their organization into an independent denomination. Later, in an interchange of views with Dr. Leonard Woods, Ware wrote his Letters to Trinitarians and Calvinists (1820) and other controversial works. In 1816 he took up his work as professor of theology in the newly founded Harvard Divinity School. In 1842 he published some of his lectures under the title An Inquiry into the Foundation, Evidences, and Truths of Religion. His son Henry Ware, 1794-1843, b. Hingham, Mass., grad. Harvard, 1812, was pastor (1817-30) of the Second Unitarian Church, Boston, and was professor in the Harvard divinity school until 1842. He was an editor (1819-22) of the first organ of Unitarianism, the Christian Disciple, and one of the leaders in the development of the denomination.

Fuseli, Henry, 1741-1825, Anglo-Swiss painter and draftsman, b. Zürich. He was known also as Johann Heinrich Fuessli or Füssli. He took holy orders but never practiced the priesthood. Fuseli went (c.1763) to England and studied in London, where Joshua Reynolds befriended him. He spent a few years in Italy, where he made the studies for his famous series of nine paintings for Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery. Returning to England, he exhibited a number of works of a grotesque and visionary type, including the celebrated Nightmare (1782). His own Milton Gallery housed a series of his paintings illustrating the poet's works. His drawings, of which he left over 800, further reveal his romantic fascination with the terrifying and weird. Fuseli admired and encouraged William Blake. Some of his lectures to the Royal Academy have been published.

Hunt, Henry, 1773-1835, English radical politician. A powerful orator, popular with the laboring classes, Hunt was quarrelsome and stubborn but a sincere proponent of electoral and other reforms. He took part with Arthur Thistlewood in the Spa Fields meeting (1816) and gained his chief notice by presiding at the meeting in Manchester that ended in the Peterloo massacre (1819). He was imprisoned for two years, after a trial of doubtful legality. Hunt sat in Parliament (1830-32) but exerted little influence.

van Dyke, Henry, 1852-1933, American clergyman, educator, and author, b. Germantown, Pa., grad. Princeton, 1873, and Princeton Theological Seminary, 1874. He was pastor of the Brick Presbyterian Church, New York City (1883-99), professor of English literature at Princeton (1899-1923), and U.S. minister to the Netherlands (1913-16). Among his popular inspirational writings is the Christmas story The Other Wise Man (1896). The themes of his sermons are also expressed in his poetry and the essays collected in Little Rivers (1895) and Fisherman's Luck (1899). He translated (1902) The Blue Flower of Novalis.

Vaughan, Henry, 1622-95, one of the English metaphysical poets. Born in Breconshire, Wales, he signed himself Silurist, after the ancient inhabitants of that region. After leaving Oxford, where he did not take a degree, he turned to the study of law. Later he switched to medicine and spent his life as a highly respected physician. His greatest poetry is contained in Silex Scintillans (1650; second part, 1655), which includes "The Ascension Hymn," "The World," "Quickness," "The Retreat," and "They are all gone into the world of light." Though he openly admitted his indebtedness to George Herbert, where Herbert celebrates the institution of the Church, Vaughan is more interested in natural objects and in a mystical communion with nature. Vaughan's other works include Poems (1646), Olor Iscanus (1651), Thalia Rediviva (1678), The Mount of Olives (1652), and Flores Solitudinis (1654).

Green, Henry, pseud. of Henry Vincent Yorke, 1905-73, English novelist. Born to an aristocratic family, he was the longtime managing director of his family's industrial engineering business in London. His nine novels, with laconic titles such as Party Going (1939), Nothing (1950), and Doting (1952), are as brilliantly original as they are tantalizing and enigmatic. Viewing human failures and inadequacies in an essentially comic light, Green achieves his unique effects through techniques normally reserved for poetry, relying on allusion, symbolism, and imagery. His most representative works are Living (1929), Caught (1943), Loving (1945), and Concluding (1948). A number of Green's short stories were published posthumously in Surviving (1992).

More, Henry, 1614-87, English philosopher, one of the foremost representatives of the school of Cambridge Platonists. His writings emphasized the mystical and theosophic phases of that philosophy, and as he grew older mysticism dominated his writings. Newton studied under him, and his concept of space and time as "the sense organs of God" greatly influenced Newton's theory of absolute space and time. His chief works are Philosophical Poems (1647) and Divine Dialogues (1668).

Morgenthau, Henry, 1856-1946, American banker, diplomat, and philanthropist, b. Germany; father of Henry Morgenthau, Jr. He emigrated to the United States as a boy. Later, he practiced law in New York City and built up a large fortune in real estate speculation and banking. An ardent supporter of Woodrow Wilson, he became finance chairman of the Democratic National Committee in 1912 and held the same position in 1916. He was (1913-16) ambassador to Turkey, and after the outbreak of World War I he was entrusted with the duty of acting there for Great Britain, France, Italy, Russia, and other nations. He attended the Paris Peace Conference as an adviser on Middle Eastern and East European problems, and later he led (1919-21) in the raising of funds for relief in the Middle East. Morgenthau was made chairman of the Greek Refugee Settlement Commission, created by the League of Nations in 1923, was an incorporator of the Red Cross in the United States, and was prominent in the activities of the Federation of Jewish Charities.

Morgenthau, Henry, Jr., 1891-1967, American cabinet officer, b. New York City; son of Henry Morgenthau. He became interested in agriculture and bought a farm in Dutchess co., N.Y., where he became an intimate of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. In 1922, Morgenthau purchased the American Agriculturalist, a leading Eastern farm journal. After Roosevelt's election (1928) as governor of New York, he appointed Morgenthau chairman of the state agricultural advisory committee and later made him state conservation commissioner. When Roosevelt became President in 1933, he appointed Morgenthau chairman of the Federal Farm Board and governor of the Farm Credit Administration. Upon the illness of William H. Woodin, Morgenthau was named (Nov., 1933) Undersecretary of the Treasury. As Secretary of the Treasury (1934-45), he administered federal tax programs that raised unprecedented revenues, supervised the sale of over $200 billion worth of government bonds to finance America's defense and war activities, and advocated international monetary stabilization. Toward the end of World War II, Morgenthau outlined his plan for controlling Germany by converting it from an industrial to an agricultural economy. The plan was briefly considered but never put into operation. Morgenthau was influential in formulating postwar economic policy at the Bretton Woods Conference, which set up the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank). After resigning as Secretary of the Treasury, Morgenthau became involved in philanthropic activities.

Morley, Henry, 1822-94, English man of letters. In 1850 he closed his successful school to assist Dickens in editing Household Words. After that he combined an editorial with an academic career, teaching English literature at several universities. Author of several biographies and critical studies, he wrote English Writers (1887-95), an unfinished 11-volume history of English literature. As editor of Morley's University Library, Cassell's National Library, and other series, he produced low-priced editions of literary classics.

Lancaster, Henry, earl of: see Lancaster, house of.

Harland, Henry, 1861-1905, American novelist, b. St. Petersburg, Russia, studied at Harvard. He traveled extensively in Europe during his childhood. His first novels were written under the pseudonym Sidney Luska and dealt with immigrant Jewish life in the United States. He later abandoned this type of writing and in 1889 left the United States to live in London. There he became one of the leading exponents of fin de siècle aestheticism and with Aubrey Beardsley founded (1894) the Yellow Book. During the three years of the Yellow Book's publication, Harland was its literary editor and contributed many stories to it. His later novels, including The Cardinal's Snuff Box (1900) and The Lady Paramount (1902), were noted for their wit and highly polished prose style.

Adams, Henry, 1838-1918, American writer and historian, b. Boston; son of Charles Francis Adams (1807-86). He was secretary (1861-68) to his father, then U.S. minister to Great Britain. Upon his return to the United States, having already abandoned the law and seeing no opportunity in the traditional Adams vocation of politics, he briefly pursued journalism. He reluctantly accepted (1870) an offer to teach medieval history at Harvard, but nonetheless stayed on seven years and also edited (1870-76) the North American Review.

In 1877 Adams moved to Washington, D.C., his home thereafter. He wrote a good biography of Albert Gallatin (1879), a less satisfactory one of John Randolph (1882), and two novels (the first anonymously and the second under a pseudonym)—Democracy (1880), a cutting satire on politics, and Esther (1884). His exhaustive study of the administrations of Jefferson and Madison, History of the United States of America (9 vol., 1889-91; reprinted in a number of editions), is one of the major achievements of American historical writing. Famous for its style, it is deficient, perhaps, in understanding the basic economic forces at work, but the first six chapters constitute one of the best social surveys of any period in U.S. history.

Never of a sanguine temperament, Adams became even more pessimistic after the suicide (1885) of his adored wife. He abandoned American history and began a series of restless journeys, physical and mental, in an effort to achieve a basic philosophy of history. Drawing upon the physical sciences for guidance and influenced by his brother, Brooks Adams, he found a satisfactory unifying principle in force, or energy. He selected for intensive treatment two periods: 1050-1250, presented in Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres (privately printed 1904, pub. 1913), and his own era, presented in The Education of Henry Adams (privately printed 1906, pub. 1918). The first is a brilliant idealization of the Middle Ages, specifically of the 13th-century unity brought about by the force of the Virgin, which was dominant then. The second was classified by his publishers as an autobiography, although it was written in the third person and was unrevealing about much of his life. It is, however, a tour de force, and describes his unsuccessful efforts to achieve intellectual peace in an age when the force of the dynamo was dominant. These two books, containing some of the most beautiful English ever written, rather than his monumental History, won Adams his lasting place as a major American writer.

The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma (1919), edited by Brooks Adams and prefaced with a memoir by Henry Adams, contains three brilliant essays on his philosophy of history—"The Tendency of History," "A Letter to American Teachers of History" (pub. separately in 1910), and "The Rule of Phase Applied to History." Friendships, especially those with John Hay and Clarence King, played a large part in Adams's life, and his personal letters reveal a warmer man than one might suspect.

Addington, Henry: see Sidmouth, Henry Addington, Viscount.

Ford, Henry, 1863-1947, American industrialist, pioneer automobile manufacturer, b. Dearborn, Mich.

The Inception of the Ford Motor Company

Ford showed mechanical aptitude at an early age and left (1879) his father's farm to work as an apprentice in a Detroit machine shop. He soon returned to his home, but after considerable experimentation with power-driven vehicles, he went (1890) to Detroit again and worked as a machinist and engineer with the Edison Company. Ford continued working in his spare time as well, and in 1896 he completed his first automobile. Resigning (1899) from the Edison Company he launched the Detroit Automobile Company.

A disagreement with his associates led Ford to organize (1903) the Ford Motor Company in partnership with Alexander Malcomson, James Couzens (who devised and oversaw the company's successful early business and accounting procedures), the Dodge brothers, and others. In 1907 he purchased the stock owned by most of his associates, and thereafter the Ford family remained in control of the company. By cutting the costs of production, by adapting the conveyor belt and assembly line to automobile production, and by featuring an inexpensive, standardized car, Ford was soon able to outdistance all his competitors and become the largest automobile producer in the world. He came to be regarded as the apostle of mass production. In 1908 he guided his chief engineer Harold Wills in the design of the Model T; nearly 17 million cars were produced worldwide before the model was discontinued (1928) and a new design—the Model A—was created to meet growing competition. Highly publicized for paying wages considerably above the average, Ford began in 1914—the year he created a sensation by announcing that in future his workers would receive $5 for an 8-hr day—a profit-sharing plan that would distribute up to $30 million annually among his employees.

Later Years

In 1915, in an effort to end World War I, he headed a privately sponsored peace expedition to Europe that failed dismally, but after the American entry into the war he was a leading producer of ambulances, airplanes, munitions, tanks, and submarine chasers. In 1918 he ran unsuccessfully for the U.S. Senate on the Democratic ticket. After weathering a severe financial crisis in 1921, he began producing high-priced motor cars along with other vehicles and founded branch firms in England and in other European countries. Strongly opposed to trade unionism, Ford—who incurred considerable antagonism because of his paternalistic attitude toward his employees and his statements on political and social questions—stubbornly resisted union organization in his factories by the United Automobile Workers until 1941. A staunch isolationist before World War II, Ford again converted his factories to the production of war material after 1941. In 1945 he retired.

Other Accomplishments and Controversies

His numerous philanthropies, in addition to the Ford Foundation, included $7.5 million for the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit and $5 million for a museum in Dearborn, where in 1933 he established Greenfield Village—a reproduction of an early American village. Ford also wrote, in collaboration with Samuel Crowther, My Life and Work (1923), Today and Tomorrow (1926), Moving Forward (1931), and Edison as I Knew Him (1930).

Ford's international reputation made him a natural target for journalists. His libel suit against the Chicago Tribune in 1919 led to an examination by the Tribune attorney, intended to show Ford's lack of education. Anti-Semitic articles in Ford's Dearborn Independent brought further legal controversy; he was forced to apologize for the articles. In the 1930s, Ford was widely attacked for employing Harry Bennett, a former boxer who established a squad of thugs to spy, beat up, and otherwise intimidate union organizers.

Ford was also a poor manager who failed to capitalize on his company's early success. In the 1920s he failed to respond to consumer tastes by introducing new models and the company fell far behind General Motors. By the time of his retirement, the company's accounting procedures were so primitive that Ford's managers were unable to accurately tell how much it cost to manufacture a car and the company was losing $9.5 million a month.

Later Generations

Henry Ford's son, Edsel Bryant Ford, 1893-1943, b. Detroit, shared in the control of the vast Ford industrial interests. He was president of the Ford Motor Company from 1919 until his death, when his father once more became (1943) president of the company. The eldest Ford soon retired again when his grandson, Henry Ford 2d, 1917-87, b. Detroit, succeeded him in 1945. The younger Henry Ford moved quickly to restructure and modernize the company, which had slipped from the world's largest automobile manufacturer in 1920 to number three in the U.S. market in 1945. He removed a number of long-time Ford executives, such as Bennett, and for the first time in company history, recruited outsiders for positions of responsibility. The company spent $1 billion between 1945 and 1955 to expand its operations, introduced successful new models, and raised $690 million in capital by offering stock to the public (1956). Although Ford modernized and revitalized the company, his tenure also saw the introduction of the Edsel, which lost the company $250 million, and Ford's autocratic management style forced a number of top executives, such as Lee Iacocca, to quit. In 1960, Ford became chief executive officer and chairman of the corporation, offices he held until retiring as CEO in 1979 and as chairman in 1980.

Although family shareholders continued to have voting control of the company, nonfamily members headed Ford until 1999, when Bill Ford (William Clay Ford, Jr.), 1957-, became chairman. Working at Ford Motor Company from 1979, Bill Ford became vice president of the commercial truck vehicle center in 1994, chairman of the finance committee in 1995, and chairman of the board in 1999. In 2001 he also became chief executive officer of Ford, but the company's difficulties led him to resign that post in 2006.

Ford, Henry, 2d: see under Ford, Henry.

Peacham, Henry, 1576?-1643?, English author, b. Hertfordshire, educated at Cambridge. The Compleat Gentleman (1622), his best-known work, offers his formula for the ideal Englishman. Among his other writings is a treatise on art, The Gentleman's Exercise (1607).

Pelham, Henry, 1696-1754, British statesman; brother of Thomas Pelham-Holles, duke of Newcastle. He entered Parliament in 1717 and served Sir Robert Walpole as secretary for war (1724-30) and paymaster-general (1730-43). In 1743 he became head of a Whig ministry that was to last until 1754. His administration concluded the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), ending the War of the Austrian Succession; it also reorganized and reduced the national debt and reformed (1752) the calendar.

Holt, Henry, 1840-1926, American author and publisher, b. Baltimore. In 1866 he became a partner in the publishing firm that became (1873) Henry Holt & Company. He was the author of several novels and the autobiographical Garrulities of an Octogenarian Editor (1923). Henry Holt & Company merged to become Holt, Rinehart, & Winston (1960), which was acquired first by the Columbia Broadcasting System and then by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. (1986), at which time Henry Holt & Company was again separated out and sold to the German publisher Holtzbrinck.

Bergh, Henry, 1811-88, American philanthropist, b. New York City. He founded (1866) the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. This organization, the first of its kind in the country, was granted the authority to enforce local animal protection laws by the New York state legislature in the same year. In 1875, with Elbridge T. Gerry and others, he helped form the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.

Flood, Henry, 1732-91, Irish statesman. He entered the Irish House of Commons in 1759 and joined the fight to gain independence for the Irish Parliament. He lost favor with the nationalists, however, when he accepted (1775) a position in the government, and the leadership of the nationalists passed to Henry Grattan. Flood recaptured popularity when, following the repeal (1782) of Poynings's Law (see under Poynings, Sir Edward), he went beyond Grattan in demanding positive assurance of Irish legislative independence. But his opposition to Catholic Emancipation, which Grattan favored, once more reduced his following. Flood served (1783-90) in both the English and the Irish House of Commons, but he never regained his leadership of the Irish nationalists.

Fonda, Henry, 1905-83, American actor, b. Grand Island, Nebr. He had considerable stage experience, appearing in such plays as Mr. Roberts (1948), The Caine Mutiny Court Martial (1958), and Two for the Seesaw (1959). Fonda played honest, homespun young men in such films as The Trail of the Lonesome Pine (1936) and The Grapes of Wrath (1940). His comedic talents were revealed in such films as The Lady Eve (1941) and Rings on Her Fingers (1942). Later in his career he often portrayed heroic figures. His other films include The Wrong Man (1956), Twelve Angry Men (1957), Once Upon a Time in the West (1968), and On Golden Pond (1982), for which he won the Academy Award. He was the father of Jane Fonda and Peter Fonda.

Cort, Henry, 1740-1800, English inventor. He revolutionized the British iron industry with his use of grooved rollers to finish iron, replacing the process of hammering, and through his invention of the puddling process. This process, called puddling, involved stirring the molten pig iron in a reverbatory furnace until the decarburizing action of the air produced a loop of pure metal.

Carey, Henry, 1687-1743, English author. After the first collection of his poems appeared in 1713, he turned to writing for the stage. Primarily a writer of farce comedy, his greatest success was Chrononhotonthologos (1734), a burlesque on theatrical bombast. He is best remembered, however, for his songs, in particular the ballad "Sally in Our Alley."

Sacheverell, Henry, 1674?-1724, English clergyman, the center of a religio-political incident in the reign of Queen Anne. In two sermons (1709) Dr. Sacheverell attacked the Whig government, lashing out especially against its toleration of religious dissenters. He was charged with seditious libel, tried, convicted, and sentenced (1710) to a three-year suspension from preaching. The trial created a furor, and the light sentence made Sacheverell the victor in the eyes of the public. The Whigs were severely humiliated by the trial.

St. John, Henry, Viscount Bolingbroke, 1678-1751, English statesman.

Political Rise

Although he was one of England's great orators, Bolingbroke was also an unstable profligate, and he was generally distrusted. Yet he apparently believed sincerely in a kind of "Tory democracy," for which he was later much admired by Benjamin Disraeli. Entering Parliament in 1701, he associated himself with Robert Harley and eventually came to rival Harley as a Tory leader.

After the accession (1702) of Queen Anne he became a favorite of the powerful duke of Marlborough and was appointed (1704) secretary for war. However, he resigned when Harley was forced out of his post by the Marlborough-Godolphin faction in 1708. When the unpopularity of the War of the Spanish Succession and the Henry Sacheverell incident brought in a Tory ministry (1710) under Harley, St. John became a secretary of state.

St. John used the London Tory clubs and writers such as Jonathan Swift to influence public opinion in favor of his policies and carried on, despite protests from England's allies, separate peace negotiations with France. In 1712 he was created Viscount Bolingbroke, and by the influence of Abigail Masham, Queen Anne's favorite, he gradually rose to become the leading figure in the government. The Peace of Utrecht (1713) and Bolingbroke's intrigues preceding it were denounced by the Whigs, whose political influence he sought to weaken by the Occasional Conformity and Schism acts, directed against religious dissenters. He now broke completely with Harley, who was dismissed in 1714.

Flight to France

Bolingbroke's true intent is not known, but it is sure that, in anticipation of the succession of a pro-Whig Hanoverian to the throne, he negotiated with James Francis Stuart, the Old Pretender, and began replacing Whig officers, especially in the army, with Tories. Whatever plans he had were thwarted by the sudden death (1714) of Queen Anne and the peaceful succession of George I, who promptly dismissed Bolingbroke. He was impeached, but he fled to France before the trial and was then attainted by Parliament. In France, Bolingbroke helped plan the uprising of the Jacobites in 1715, but in 1716 he was dismissed from the service of the Old Pretender on suspicion of having given secret Jacobite plans to the English government. He abjured the Jacobite cause, but only in 1723 did he receive (with the help of a generous bribe) a pardon from George I.

Return to England

On his return to England, although excluded from the House of Lords, he exerted great political influence, at first supporting but later organizing strong opposition to Robert Walpole. He initiated new methods of opposition to the government, such as the use of parliamentary inquiries, and attacked the government in the pages of a new periodical, the Craftsman, to which he contributed a famous series of letters, including a "Dissertation upon Parties" (1735), under the signature of Occasional Writer.

Retirement

He retired from politics in 1735 and spent most his remaining years on his estates in France, where he devoted himself to political and philosophical writing. His numerous writings, in a lucid but rhetorical style that was greatly admired at that time, include Letters on the Study and Use of History (privately printed, 1735-36), The True Use of Retirement (1738), and Idea of a Patriot King (1749). His works were edited by David Mallet (5 vol., 1754) and several times thereafter.

Beaufort, Henry, 1377?-1447, English prelate and statesman. The son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, and his mistress (later wife) Catherine Swynford, he was half brother to Henry IV. He was declared legitimate (1397) and made bishop of Lincoln (1398) by Richard II, and under Henry IV served as chancellor (1403-4) and became (1404) bishop of Winchester.

On the accession of his friend Henry V, Beaufort again was chancellor (1413-17). At the Council of Constance, Beaufort swung (1417) English influence to help elect Pope Martin V, but Henry refused to let him accept the pope's reward of a cardinalate. When in 1422 the infant Henry VI succeeded to the throne, Beaufort became involved in a vigorous struggle for power with Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. Beaufort's enormous wealth (he loaned money to the government for the war in France) and political skill gave him the advantage, and he served again as chancellor (1424-26).

Made a cardinal (1426) and papal legate, he preached a crusade against the Hussites in Bohemia in 1429, but the troops he raised were diverted to join the English army in France. In 1431 he crowned Henry VI as king of France in Paris. Beaufort defeated (1432) an attempt by Gloucester to remove him from the see of Winchester and by 1437 enjoyed complete ascendancy. He and his faction, which was later led by William de la Pole, 4th earl and 1st duke of Suffolk (see under Pole, family), sought to end the French wars.

George, Henry, 1839-97, American economist, founder of the single tax movement, b. Philadelphia. Of a poor family, his formal education was cut short at 14, and in 1857 he emigrated to California; there he worked at various occupations before turning to newspaper writing in San Francisco. George's experience in a number of trades, his desperate poverty while supporting a family, and the examples of financial rapacity that came to his attention as wage earner and newspaperman gave impetus to his reformist tendencies. George believed that an increase in poverty accompanied and even surpassed the increase in national wealth. He believed that the answer to this seeming paradox lay in the fact that the rental of land and the unearned increase in land values profited a few individuals rather than the community whose existence made the land valuable. He believed that a single tax on land would meet all the costs of government and even leave a surplus, besides unburdening labor and capital of taxes on their output. He first outlined the doctrine in the pamphlet Our Land and Land Policy (1871) and set himself to write a more elaborate treatise, which appeared under the title Progress and Poverty (1879); it sold millions of copies all over the world. In 1880 George moved to New York City and spent the remainder of his life writing and lecturing. He supported the Irish Land League and various economic and political reforms. In 1886 he ran for mayor of New York on a reform platform, and the incumbent Tammany machine was forced to go outside its ranks to find in Abram S. Hewitt a man strong enough to oppose him. Hewitt won, but George, without a party organization, polled a heavy vote, running ahead of the Republican candidate Theodore Roosevelt. In 1897 George ran again but died just before the election. Clear presentation and moral fervor rather than originality make George's ideas outstanding. His theories have influenced tax legislation in Australia, in parts of Canada, in the United States, and in certain nations of Western Europe.

Clay, Henry, 1777-1852, American statesman, b. Hanover co., Va.

Early Career

His father died when he was four years old, and Clay's formal schooling was limited to three years. His stepfather secured (1792) for him a clerk's position in the Virginia high court of chancery. There he gained the regard of George Wythe, who directed his reading. Clay also read law under Robert Brooke, attorney general of Virginia, and in 1797 he was licensed to practice.

Moving in the same year to Lexington, Ky., he quickly gained wide reputation as a lawyer and orator. He served (1803-6) in the Kentucky legislature and was (1805-7) professor of law at Transylvania Univ. Having spent the short session of 1806-7 in the U.S. Senate, he returned (1807) to the state legislature, became (1808) speaker, and remained there until he was chosen to fill an unexpired term (1810-11) in the U.S. Senate.

Congressman

In 1810 Clay was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives and served (1811-14) as speaker. As spokesman of Western expansionist interests and leader of the "war hawks," Clay stirred up enthusiasm for war with Great Britain and helped bring on the War of 1812. He resigned (1814) from Congress to aid in the peace negotiations leading to the Treaty of Ghent.

He again served (1815-21) in the House, again was speaker (1815-20), and began to formulate his "American system," a national program that ultimately included federal aid for internal improvements and tariff protection of American industries. In 1821, Clay, to pacify sectional interests, pushed the Missouri Compromise through the House. In the House for the last time (1823-25), he once more became (1823) speaker, and he did much to augment the powers of that office. In this session he secured the western extension of the National Road and, against much opposition, eloquently carried through the Tariff of 1824.

Secretary of State

As a candidate for the presidency in 1824, Clay had the fourth largest number of electoral votes, and, with no candidate having a majority, the election went to the House, where the three highest were to be voted upon. It became Clay's duty to vote for one of his rivals. Despite the Western interests of Andrew Jackson and despite the instructions of the Kentucky legislature to vote for him, Clay's dislike for the military hero was so intense that he voted for John Quincy Adams. When President Adams appointed Clay Secretary of State, Jackson's friends cried "corrupt bargain" and charged Clay with political collusion. Evidence has not been found to prove this, but the accusation impeded Clay's future political fortunes. As Secretary of State (1825-29), he secured congressional approval—which came too late for the American delegates to attend—of U.S. participation in the Pan-American Congress of 1826.

Senator

In 1828, Clay again supported Adams for President, and Jackson's success bitterly disappointed him. Although he intended to retire from politics, Clay was elected (1831) to the U.S. Senate and now led the National Republicans, who were beginning to call themselves Whigs (because they opposed Jackson's "tyranny"; see Whig party). Hoping to embarrass Jackson, Clay led the opposition in the Senate to the President's policies, but when the election came Jackson was overwhelmingly reelected.

Clay's chagrin was buried in the crisis developing over the tariff. South Carolina's nullification of the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 as well as Jackson's threats of armed invasion of that state allowed Clay to gain politically—working, even at the cost of his own protectionist views, toward a compromise with the John C. Calhoun faction, he helped to promote the Compromise Tariff of 1833.

Clay opposed the Jackson regime at every turn, particularly on the bank issue. When Jackson had the deposits removed (1833) from the Bank of the United States to his "pet banks," Clay secured in the Senate passage of a resolution—later expunged (Jan., 1837) from the record—censuring the President for his act.

Refusing to run for President in 1836, Clay continued his opposition tactics against Van Buren's administration and fought the subtreasury system in vain. In 1840, Clay lost the Whig nomination to William H. Harrison, mainly because of Thurlow Weed's adroit politics. Clay supported Harrison and, when Harrison was elected, was offered the post of Secretary of State, but he chose to stay in the Senate. He now planned to reestablish the Bank of the United States, but the unexpected accession of John Tyler to the presidency and his vetoes of Clay's bills caused Clay to resign his Senate seat.

In 1844 he ran against James K. Polk, an avowed expansionist. Earlier Clay had publicly opposed the annexation of Texas, and he restated his position in the "Alabama letters," agreeing to annexation if it could be accomplished with the common consent of the Union and without war. This maneuver probably lost him New York state, with which he could have won the election. His failure was crushing for him and for the Whig party. In 1848 his party refused him its nomination, feeling that he had no chance, and his presidential aspirations were never fulfilled.

He reentered (1849) the Senate when the country faced the slavery question in the territory newly acquired following the Mexican War. Clay denounced the extremists in both North and South, asserted the superior claims of the Union, and was chiefly instrumental in shaping the Compromise of 1850. It was the third time that he saved the Union in a crisis, and thus he has been called the Great Pacificator and the Great Compromiser.

Clews, Henry, c.1836-1923, American financier, b. England. He emigrated to the United States c.1850 and joined an import business as a junior clerk. In 1859 he cofounded the banking firm that later became Livermore, Clews, and Company, the second largest marketer of federal bonds during the Civil War. His own firm, Clews and Company, was formed in 1877. Refusing public office, he nevertheless organized the "Committee of 70," which deposed the Tweed Ring in New York City. He served as President Grant's economic consultant in Japan and wrote and lectured widely on diverse social, political, and economic issues. He wrote Fifty Years in Wall Street (1908).

Purcell, Henry, c.1659-1695, English composer and organist. Often considered England's finest native composer, Purcell combined a great gift for lyrical melody with harmonic invention and mastery of counterpoint. He sang in the choir of the Chapel Royal until 1673 and became organist there in 1682. In 1677 he was appointed composer for the king's band, and from 1679 until his death he was organist at Westminster Abbey. His sole opera, Dido and Aeneas (1689), is an early masterpiece of the form. It is remarkable for its dramatic characterization, poignant melodies, and adherence of the music to the genuine rhythms of English speech. His other notable stage works include the masque The Fairy Queen (1692), based on Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream, and music for Dryden's King Arthur (1691). Purcell also excelled at writing songs for public occasions, including several odes for St. Cecilia's Day and his famous birthday ode for James II, Sound the Trumpet. In his vocal music Purcell often employed the device of the ground bass, in which a bass melody is repeated while the upper parts pursue variations. He also composed outstanding instrumental works and music that is secular in tone for the English church service. Purcell invigorated English music with Italian and French elements, creating at the same time a distinctively English baroque style. His importance in English musical life was overshadowed only by that of Handel, in whose choral works there are strong reflections of Purcell's influence.

Benbridge, Henry, 1744-1812, American portrait painter and miniaturist, b. Philadelphia, studied in Italy and with Benjamin West in London. His portraits are characterized by technical skill and have sometimes been attributed to John Singleton Copley. Among his works are portraits of Mrs. Simons (Metropolitan Mus.) and Benjamin Franklin (Carnegie Inst., Pittsburgh). He lived in Charleston, S.C., for many years.

Bennet, Henry: see Arlington, Henry Bennet, 1st earl of.

Jones, Henry: see Cavendish.

Fawcett, Henry, 1833-84, English economist and statesman. A follower of John Stuart Mill, he was professor of political economy at Cambridge, and his Manual of Political Economy (1863) was widely read. As member of Parliament and later postmaster general under William Gladstone he achieved several important improvements in the postal system. His wife, Dame Millicent Garrett Fawcett, 1847-1929, noted English feminist, became the leader of the nonmilitant suffragists. She was made Dame of the British Empire in 1924.

Timrod, Henry, 1828-67, American poet, b. Charleston, S.C., studied at the Univ. of Georgia. He was known as "the laureate of the Confederacy." Timrod became editor of the Columbia South Carolinian in 1864, but, ruined by the war, he died in poverty of tuberculosis, having published only one volume of poems (1860). His works were posthumously edited (1873) by his friend P. H. Hayne. Timrod's finest poems are his "Ode to the Confederate Dead at Magnolia Cemetery," "The Cotton Boll," "Carolina," and "Ethnogenesis."

Gladwin, Henry, 1729-91, British army officer in colonial America, b. Derbyshire, England. He served in the disastrous campaign of Edward Braddock and in other actions in the French and Indian War but is best remembered for his defense of Detroit in Pontiac's Rebellion.

Villard, Henry, 1835-1900, American journalist and financier, b. Germany. His first name was originally Hilgard. He attended universities in Germany, and after he reached (1853) the United States he did newspaper reporting. He won distinction in 1858 by reporting the Lincoln-Douglas debates, and in the Civil War he was a correspondent for New York newspapers. In 1873 he acted as agent for holders of Western railroad securities and soon became active in railroad financing. He organized (1879) the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company and gained a solid foothold in the transportation of the Pacific Northwest area. He then obtained a controlling interest in the Northern Pacific RR and became (1881) its president, but completion of the building of that railroad through the mountains bankrupted him (1883). With new capital Villard once more gained control of the Northern Pacific and in 1889 became chairman of the board of directors. He merged (1890) smaller companies to form the Edison General Electric Company (later the General Electric Company) and was its president until 1893. Villard obtained (1881) control of the New York Evening Post, which later (1897) came under the management of his son, Oswald Garrison Villard. He generously contributed to the Univ. of Oregon.

Howard, Henry: see Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of.

Hudson, Henry, fl. 1607-11, English navigator and explorer. He was hired (1607) by the English Muscovy Company to find the Northeast Passage to Asia. He failed, and another attempt (1608) to find a new route was also fruitless. Engaged (1609) for the same purpose by the Dutch East India Company, he sailed in the Half Moon to Spitsbergen, where extreme ice and cold brought his crew near mutiny. Hudson, determined not to lose his reputation as an explorer, disregarded his instructions and sailed westward hoping to find the Northwest Passage. He entered Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay, and later New York Bay. He was the first European to ascend (1609) the Hudson River (named for him), nearly to present-day Albany. His voyage gave the Dutch their claim to the region. His fourth expedition (1610), financed by English adventurers, started from England. Again he sailed westward, hoping to find the Northwest Passage. Between Greenland and Labrador he entered Hudson Strait and by it reached Hudson Bay. After weeks of exploration, he was forced by ice to winter there. By the next summer (1611) his starved and diseased crew mutinied and set Hudson, with his son and seven men, adrift in a small boat, without food or water. He was never seen again. His discoveries, however, gave England its claim to the Hudson Bay region.

Dearborn, Henry, 1751-1829, American general and cabinet member, b. Hampton, N.H. He was a physician and became a captain of militia. When the American Revolution broke out, he led his company in the battle of Bunker Hill. Later he saw distinguished service, accompanying Benedict Arnold in the march against Quebec (where he was captured, but later exchanged), serving in the Saratoga campaign in 1777, wintering at Valley Forge, and fighting in the battle of Monmouth. He led (1779) a regiment in John Sullivan's campaign against Loyalists and Native Americans in New York and was on General Washington's staff at Yorktown. After the war he settled in Maine, and represented (1793-97) the District of Maine in Congress. As secretary of war (1801-9) under President Thomas Jefferson he helped form the plan for removal of the Native Americans beyond the Mississippi River. At the outbreak of the War of 1812, he became major general in command of the northern frontier from Niagara to the Atlantic coast. His inaction contributed to the British capture of Detroit. Several plans to invade Canada were not even attempted, and although, in 1813, Dearborn took York (now Toronto) and Fort George on the Niagara River, he lost many men and exposed Sackett's Harbor to an almost successful British attack. He was relieved of command in 1813. From 1822 to 1824 he served as minister to Portugal. Fort Dearborn (around which grew the city of Chicago) was named for him.

Middleton, Henry, 1717-84, American Revolutionary leader, b. near Charleston, S.C. A wealthy, influential planter, he held many official positions before resigning (1770) in protest against the British trade policies. He was a member (1774-76) and president (1774-75) of the Continental Congress, but he opposed independence and resigned. His son Arthur Middleton took his place. The elder Middleton returned to South Carolina and continued to hold public offices. Although he resumed allegiance to the crown after the fall of Charleston (1780), his estates were not confiscated.

Fielding, Henry, 1707-54, English novelist and dramatist. Born of a distinguished family, he was educated at Eton and studied law at Leiden. Settling in London in 1729, he began writing comedies, farces, and burlesques, the most notable being Tom Thumb (1730), and two satires, Pasquin (1736) and The Historical Register for 1736 (1737), which attacked the Walpole government and provoked the Licensing Act of 1737. This act, setting up a censorship of the stage, ended Fielding's dramatic career and turned him to the less inhibited form of the novel. In that genre he achieved his greatest success, beginning with his first novel, Joseph Andrews (1742), which started simply as a burlesque of Samuel Richardson's sentimental novel Pamela but developed into a great comic creation. He followed with Jonathan Wild (1743), the history of a superman of crime, which has been called the most sustained piece of irony in English. His masterpiece is Tom Jones (1749), a novel recounting the wild comic adventures of the good-hearted though highly fallible foundling, Tom Jones. In Tom and his guardian, Squire Allworthy, Fielding presents his concept of the ideal man, one in whom goodness and charity are combined with common sense. Because of its memorable characters and episodes, the brilliance of its plotting, and the generosity of its moral vision, Tom Jones is considered one of the greatest of English novels. Amelia (1751), his last novel, is a somewhat sentimental story about a young wife's devotion to her feckless husband, in which Fielding exposes numerous social evils of his day. Fielding had begun his serious study of law in 1737 and in 1740 was called to the bar. After spending several years as a political journalist, he was appointed justice of the peace for Westminster in 1748 and for Middlesex in 1749. A fearless and honest magistrate, he worked arduously in the administration of justice and the prevention of crime. Broken in health, he resigned his office in 1753 and the following year sailed for Portugal, where he died. His last work was the amusing journal Voyage to Lisbon (1755).

Treece, Henry, 1912-66, English poet and novelist. He served as an intelligence officer in the Royal Air Force during World War II, after which he taught school for many years. He is noted chiefly for his poetry, which is characterized by precise observation and intense, vivid imagery. Among his works are Towards a Personal Armageddon (1940) and The Exiles (1952), volumes of poetry, and the novels The Dark Island (1952) and The Green Man (1966).

Constable, Henry, 1562-1613, English poet. After graduating from Cambridge in 1580 he went to Paris, where the atmosphere was more congenial for one of Roman Catholic faith. There he wrote Diana (1592), a volume of sonnets. In addition he was the author of four pastorals that appeared in England's Helicon (1600) and Spiritual Sonnets (1815). Constable's work is considered to have had an important influence on the development of the sonnet.

King, Henry, 1592-1669, English poet. He became bishop of Chichester in 1642. Elegies constitute nearly half his work, his most notable being "The Exequy," written on the death of his young wife. However, he is chiefly remembered for his love poem "Tell me no more how fair she is."

Knox, Henry, 1750-1806, American Revolutionary officer, b. Boston. He volunteered for service and went, in 1775, to Ticonderoga to retrieve the captured cannon and mortar there for use in the siege of Boston. The fortification of Dorchester Heights with this artillery compelled the evacuation of Boston by the British. From that time he was a trusted companion of George Washington. The artillery, under his charge, took a conspicuous part in the battles of Princeton, Brandywine, Germantown, Monmouth, and Yorktown. He commanded at West Point (1782-84) and was a founder (1783) of the Society of the Cincinnati. Knox was Secretary of War both under the Articles of Confederation and under the Constitution (1785-94). A conservative, he attempted to raise a force to oppose Shays's Rebellion, and he favored a strong federal government.

Wright, Henry, 1878-1936, American landscape architect and community planner, b. Lawrence, Kans., studied architecture at the Univ. of Pennsylvania. He was widely recognized as a leader in the movement for the building of better communities. He served (1918) as town planner for the Housing Division of the U.S. Emergency Fleet Corporation. Wright was a founding member of the Regional Planning Association of America, along with Lewis Mumford and Clarence Stein. This group imported Ebenezer Howard's garden city model from England to the United States. With Stein, Wright designed model communities at Sunnyside, L.I., and at Radburn, N.J. Radburn is especially noted for its superblock plan. He was consultant to the New York state commission on housing and regional planning during the 1920s, and later, to the Public Works Administration. Wright also taught at Columbia Univ. during the 1930s. He wrote Rehousing Urban America (1935).

Wriothesley, Henry: see Southampton, Henry Wriothesley, 3d earl of.

Gannett, Henry, 1846-1914, American geographer, b. Bath, Maine, grad. Harvard (B.S., 1869; M.E., 1870). His first work as a topographer was on the Hayden Survey. After 1882 he was chief geographer of the U.S. Geological Survey. Through his work as geographer of the U.S. censuses of 1880, 1890, and 1900 and the Philippine, Cuban, and Puerto Rican censuses, he became interested in place names. His efforts to resolve difficulties caused by confusion of names led to the establishment (1890) of the U.S. Board of Geographic Names; he served as the board's chairman until 1910. Gannett is distinguished as one of the founders of the National Geographic Society (president, 1910-14), the Geological Society of America, and the Association of American Geographers. His books include Physiographic Types (1898-1900) and Topographic Maps of the United States Showing Physiographic Types (1907).

Garnet, Henry: see Garnett, Henry.

Garnett or Garnet, Henry, 1555?-1606, English Jesuit. He was converted to Roman Catholicism and in 1575 became a Jesuit. After some years on the Continent he returned as a missionary to England (1586) and became superior of the English Jesuits. He is principally remembered as one of the priests accused of taking part in the Gunpowder Plot. Garnett admitted to knowledge of the plot as confessor to two of the conspirators, was convicted of treason on confusing evidence, and was executed.

Barnard, Henry, 1811-1900, American educator, b. Hartford, Conn., grad. Yale, 1830. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1835. As a member (1837-39) of the Connecticut legislature, he originated and secured the passage in 1838 of an act to provide for the better supervision of the common schools. Horace Mann had carried through a similar reform in Massachusetts in 1837, and the two men became leaders in the movement to reform the common schools of the country. Barnard was secretary of the Connecticut board of commissioners of common schools from 1838 to 1842. He performed pioneer work in school inspection, recommendation of textbooks, organization of teachers' institutes and associations of parents and teachers, and the framing of additional legislative measures on education. He also edited the Connecticut Common School Journal and made valuable reports, including a survey of the existing school system. A political reversal in Connecticut in 1842 abolished his office and entire program. In 1843, Barnard was selected to survey the common school system of Rhode Island and instituted similar reforms there, as well as starting school libraries and revising examination methods. In 1849 he returned to Connecticut, where his program had been reestablished, to serve as superintendent of schools and principal of the new state normal school at New Britain. Ill health compelled his resignation in 1855. In 1858 he accepted the chancellorship of the Univ. of Wisconsin, and in two years there he did much for the state's common school system. He became president of St. John's College, Annapolis, in 1866, but resigned in 1867 to become the first U.S. commissioner of education. Barnard had long urged the establishment of a federal agency to gather and disseminate educational information and statistics, which had been collected for the first time in the census of 1840. As commissioner he planned and organized the work of this agency and prepared extensive reports on education in this country and abroad and on school legislation. Barnard resigned in 1870. He continued the publication of the American Journal of Education (31 vol., 1855-81; reissued in 1902 with an additional volume dated 1882). This journal, subsidized by Barnard, included translations of many previously unavailable European educational classics. Approximately 50 of these treatises were reprinted as Barnard's "Library of Education."

Medwall, Henry, fl. 1486, first known English vernacular dramatist. He was chaplain to Cardinal Morton. His Fulgens and Lucrece (1497), whose heroine must choose between two suitors, is the earliest known secular English play. Medwall also wrote Nature, a morality play.

Miller, Henry, 1891-1980, American author, b. New York City. Miller sought to reestablish the freedom to live without the conventional restraints of civilization. His books are potpourris of sexual description, quasi-philosophical speculation, reflection on literature and society, surrealistic imaginings, and autobiographical incident. After living in Paris in the 1930s, he returned to the United States and settled in Big Sur, Calif. Miller's first two works, Tropic of Cancer (Paris, 1934) and Tropic of Capricorn (Paris, 1939), were denied publication in the U.S. until the early 1960s because of alleged obscenity. The Colossus of Maroussi (1941), a travel book of modern Greece, is considered by some critics his best work. His other writings include the Rosy Crucifixion Trilogy—Sexus (1949), Plexus (1953), and Nexus (1960). In 1976 Norman Mailer edited a selection of Miller's writings, Genius and Lust.

Inman, Henry, 1801-46, American portrait, genre, and landscape painter, b. Yorkville, N.Y., studied with John Wesley Jarvis. He was a founder and first vice president of the National Academy of Design. He was highly esteemed as a portrait painter in the United States and in England. Among his distinguished sitters were Martin Van Buren and William C. Macready (Metropolitan Mus.); Wordsworth (Univ. of Pennsylvania); Fitz-Greene Halleck (N.Y. Historical Society); and Fanny Kemble (Brooklyn Mus., N.Y.). His landscapes and genre works include Picnic in the Catskills and Rydal Falls, England (Brooklyn Mus.).

Mackenzie, Henry, 1745-1831, English author, b. Scotland. He had an active political and legal life, serving as comptroller of taxes for Scotland from 1804 until his death. His first and most famous novel, The Man of Feeling (1771), is a series of loosely joined episodes describing the adventures of a highly sentimental and good-natured man. His other novels are The Man of the World (1773) and Julia de Roubigne (1777). Of his four plays the only one to achieve any success was The Prince of Tunis (1773).

Stafford, Henry, 2d duke of Buckingham, 1454?-1483, English nobleman. He was the grandson of Humphrey Stafford, the 1st duke, whom he succeeded in 1460. He passed the death sentence on George, duke of Clarence, in 1478, but it was not until the death (1483) of Edward IV that Buckingham achieved political prominence. Though married to a sister of Edward's widow, Elizabeth Woodville, he joined Richard of Gloucester (later Richard III) in taking custody of the young Edward V from the queen mother and figured largely in the political plot by which Richard seized the throne. He was given enormous power, especially in W England and Wales, but soon, for reasons not clear, he rebelled against Richard, intending to place Henry Tudor (later Henry VII) on the throne. His army, gathered in the west, was prevented from advancing by floods of the Wye and Severn rivers and soon dispersed. He went into hiding, was betrayed by one of his retainers, tried as a traitor, and beheaded. It has been suggested that, as constable of the Tower of London, Buckingham, rather than Richard III, was the probable murderer of the two princes held in the Tower.

White, Henry, 1850-1927, American diplomat, b. Baltimore. He studied abroad and traveled widely. White—often called the first career diplomat in the United States—entered the foreign service as secretary (1883-84) of the U.S. legation in Vienna. He served (1884-93) with the U.S. embassy at London, and in 1896 President McKinley appointed him secretary of the embassy. He later was ambassador at Rome (1905-7) and at Paris (1907-9); as head of the U.S. delegation to the Algeciras Conference (1906), White helped in the settlement of the Moroccan Crisis between Germany and France. He was sent (1910) as a special emissary to Chile and in 1918 was appointed a commissioner to the Paris Peace Conference by President Wilson.

Moore, Henry, 1898-1986, English sculptor. Moore's early sculpture was angular and rough, strongly influenced by pre-Columbian art. About 1928 he evolved a more personal style which has gained him an international reputation. His works, in wood, stone, and cement (done without clay models), are characterized by their smooth, organic shape and often include empty hollows, which he showed to have as meaningful a shape as solid mass. During World War II, when materials for carving were scarce, he was commissioned by the government to do a series of drawings of the London underground bomb shelters (1940). His favorite sculptural subjects were the mother and child and the reclining figure. Moore executed an abstract screen and a reclining figure for the Time-Life Building in London (1952-53), a bronze group for Lincoln Center of the Performing Arts in New York City (1962-65), and a monument for the Univ. of Chicago (1964-66). In the Art Gallery of Toronto, a gallery is dedicated entirely to his works.

Cotton, Henry (Thomas Henry Cotton), 1907-87, British golfer, b. Cheshire, England. Although he played as a professional at the age of 17, Cotton did not achieve international recognition until he won the British Open in 1934. He again won this title in 1937 and in 1948, in addition to three British Professional Golf Association crowns and many European championships. Cotton played on three British Ryder Cup teams and twice was captain.

Cavendish, Henry, 1731-1810, English physicist and chemist, b. Nice. He was the son of Lord Charles Cavendish and grandson of the 2d duke of Devonshire. He was a recluse, and most of his writings were published posthumously. His great contributions to science resulted from his many accurate experiments in various fields. His conclusions were remarkably original. His chief researches were on heat, in which he determined the specific heats for a number of substances (although these heat constants were not recognized or so called until later); on the composition of air; on the nature and properties of a gas that he isolated and described as "inflammable air" and that Lavoisier later named hydrogen; and on the composition of water, which he demonstrated to consist of oxygen and his "inflammable air." In his Electrical Researches (1879) he anticipated some of the discoveries of Coulomb and Faraday. His experiments to determine the density of the earth led him to state it as 5.48 times that of water. His Scientific Papers were collected in two volumes (Electrical Researches and Chemical and Dynamical) in 1921.

Stuart or Stewart, Henry: see Darnley, Henry Stuart, Lord.

Shrapnel, Henry, 1761-1842, British general, inventor of the shrapnel shell. The shell, consisting of a steel case filled with bullets and an explosive charge, is fired in midair by a time fuse and scatters shot and shell fragments with great and deadly force over a wide area. Adopted by the British army in 1803, this antipersonnel weapon became important in modern warfare. An artillery officer, Henry Shrapnel also improved the construction of howitzers, mortars, and small arms.

Sidgwick, Henry, 1838-1900, English philosopher. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, and taught moral philosophy there from 1869 until 1900. The basis of his thought was British utilitarianism. Analyzing the intuitionist and utilitarian arguments, he indicated their interrelationship by showing how the doctrine of common sense rests on the principles of utilitarianism. In The Methods of Ethics (1874) he distinguished between actions performed with a view toward the general happiness and those performed with a view toward the agent's own self-interest. After comparing ethical systems based on intuitionism, and utilitarianism, and egoism, he concluded that intuitionism and utilitarianism could be integrated into a single ethical system, but that no rational explanation could be found for preferring it to egoism. Sidgwick was interested in the advancement of women's rights, aiding in the planning and founding of Newnham College for women. He was also a founder of the Society of Psychical Research. Other major published works are Principles of Political Economy (1883), Philosophy: Its Scope and Relations (1902), and The Development of European Polity (1903).

Grattan, Henry, 1746-1820, Irish statesman. A lawyer, he entered (1775) the Irish Parliament and soon became known as a brilliant orator. Aided by Britain's preoccupation with the American Revolution and its fear of the revolutionary potential of the Irish volunteer army (see Ireland), Grattan led the successful fight for abolition of the restrictions on Irish trade and the repeal of Poynings's Law (see under Poynings, Sir Edward). Having thus gained nominal legislative independence for the Irish Parliament, he worked to eliminate the system by which English patrons continued to control it, advocating Catholic Emancipation as the only means for making the Irish Parliament truly representative. The Catholic Relief Act (1793) gave Catholics the right to vote in Ireland, but hopes raised in 1795 that Catholics would be allowed to sit in Parliament were soon dashed, and Grattan retired (1797) in indignation at the government's policy. In 1800, on the last day of the debate on the parliamentary union with England, Grattan appeared in the Irish Parliament and made the greatest speech of his career in opposition to the Act of Union. He sat in the British Parliament from 1805, taking little part except to support Catholic Emancipation.

Bradshaw, Henry, 1831-86, English librarian and antiquarian at Cambridge. He discovered, organized, and made known the university's treasures of manuscripts and incunabula, especially those in Gaelic—the Book of Deer and old Celtic glossaries—and the early Waldensian records in the Piedmont MSS. He was dean of King's College from 1857 to 1865.

Briggs, Henry, 1561-1630, English mathematician. He was the first professor of geometry at Gresham College, London (1596-1619), and Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford (from 1619). After publication of Napier's work on logarithms in 1614, Briggs suggested that the logarithms be tabulated to the base 10, and Napier agreed to the alteration. Briggs wrote Arithmetica logarithmica (1624), a work containing logarithmic tables for 30,000 natural numbers to 14 places. His logarithms are known today as common logarithms.

Stevens, Henry, 1819-86, American bookdealer and bibliographer, b. Barnet, Vt. After attending college and law school, Stevens went to Europe as agent for several important libraries of the United States and remained in England to collect Americana for the British Museum. While there he made catalogs of the museum's collections on the United States, Mexico, and Canada and lists of its famous Bibles.

Ireton, Henry, 1611-51, English parliamentary general; son-in-law of Oliver Cromwell. He held various commands in the parliamentary army during the first civil war (see English civil war) and in 1646 married Cromwell's daughter Bridget. A conservative reformer and advocate of limited monarchy, he opposed the radical constitutional demands of the Levelers and drafted the peace settlement known as the Heads of the Proposals, presented to the king by the army in 1647. In 1648 he took the part of the army against Parliament, became a republican, and signed (1649) the death warrant of Charles I. Appointed (1650) lord deputy of Ireland, he sternly carried out Cromwell's policy of dispossessing the Irish and settling Englishmen there.

Dunster, Henry, c.1612-1659, first president of Harvard, b. Lancashire, England, educated at Magdalene College, Cambridge (M.A., 1634). He emigrated to New England in 1640 and was almost at once (Aug. 27, 1640) appointed president of the new college. He formulated its rules and patterned its procedure after the English schools, worked actively for its support, and gave freely of his meager salary for its success. Because of his adoption of Baptist principles he was forced to resign in 1654, and he spent the remainder of his life as a pastor in Scituate, Mass.

Sweet, Henry, 1845-1912, English philologist and phonetician. An authority on Anglo-Saxon and the history of the English language, Sweet was also a pioneer in modern scientific phonetics. His History of English Sounds (1874) was a landmark in that study. In 1901 he was made a reader in phonetics at Oxford. Among his other writings are A Handbook of Phonetics (1877), A New English Grammar (2 parts, 1892-95), The History of Language (1900), The Sounds of English (1908), and works on Anglo-Saxon, Middle English, and Icelandic. Sweet was the model for Professor Higgins in G. B. Shaw's play Pygmalion.

Wells, Henry, 1805-78, American pioneer expressman, b. Thetford, Vt. As a child he moved with his family to central New York state. In 1843 he established express service between New York City and Buffalo and successfully competed with the U.S. Post Office by carrying mail at less than the government rate. His association with William G. Fargo began in 1844, when Wells & Company was organized. In 1846, Wells temporarily abandoned most of his other commercial interests to concentrate on the transatlantic trade. Together with William Fargo, he organized (1852) Wells, Fargo & Company to handle express service to California and the West. Wells made his home in Aurora, N.Y., where he founded Wells Seminary (now Wells College). A stammerer, he established several schools for those similarly afflicted.

Wheaton, Henry, 1785-1848, American jurist and diplomat, b. Providence, R.I., grad. Rhode Island College (now Brown), 1802. After translating the Code Napoléon into English, he practiced law, held various judicial offices, and was (1816-27) reporter of the decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court. While reporter he prepared A Digest of the Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States, 1789-1820 (1821). He challenged his successor's right to use his summaries of Supreme Court opinions in Wheaton v. Peters (1834), establishing that only notes and commentary can be copyrighted. Wheaton's diplomatic career began with his service (1827-35) as chargé d'affaires in Denmark. While in Denmark he wrote his History of the Northmen (1831), which maintained that America had been discovered by Scandinavians before the voyage of Columbus. Wheaton represented (1835-46) the United States at the Prussian court. The U.S. Senate ratified treaties he negotiated with Prussia respecting the rights of immigrants, but it rejected the reciprocal trade agreements he considered his greatest achievement. Wheaton's crowning works were Elements of International Law (1836) and the companion work, A History of the Law of Nations (1845), which had great influence on international law.

Drummond, Henry, 1786-1860, English banker, known particularly as one of the founders of the Catholic Apostolic Church. Beginning in 1826, he gathered annually for five years, at his home in Surrey, a group of laity and clergy to examine the prophecies in the Scriptures. Out of these meetings grew the organization of the Catholic Apostolic Church under Edward Irving. Drummond became an apostle of the church in 1832. From 1847 until his death, he was a member of Parliament.

Drummond, Henry, 1851-97, Scottish clergyman and author, educated at the Univ. of Edinburgh. He was a minister of the Free Church and from 1877 a lecturer on science in Free Church College, Glasgow. Deeply interested in the reconciliation of science and religion, he wrote Natural Law in the Spiritual World (1883). After travels in Africa he published Tropical Africa (1888), and The Ascent of Man is a collection of the Lowell Lectures he delivered in Boston in 1893. A sermon, The Greatest Thing in the World (1890), has been reprinted many times.

Henry, Alexander, two fur traders, uncle and nephew, of the Old Northwest, each of whom left a valuable journal of his travels and experiences. Alexander Henry, the elder, 1739-1824, b. New Brunswick, N.J., served under Jeffery Amherst in the last of the French and Indian Wars. As a fur trader he barely escaped massacre (1763) by Native Americans at Michilimackinac in Pontiac's Rebellion. Captured by the Ojibwa, he was later adopted and protected by a family and made his way back to Fort Niagara in time to join Bradstreet's army in lifting the siege of Detroit. He returned to fur trading and in 1775 penetrated the Old Northwest to the region of the Saskatchewan. Competition with the Hudson's Bay Company caused a body of the free traders, among them Henry, Peter Pond, and the Frobishers, to unite as the group that eventually became the powerful North West Company. See his Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories (new ed. with biographical notes by James Bain, 1972). The date and place of birth of his nephew, Alexander Henry, the younger, d. 1814, are not known. His journal of 1799-1814, edited by Elliott Coues (together with the journal of David Thompson) as New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest (1897), describes his adventures as a trader of the North West Company on the Red, Pembina, Saskatchewan, and Columbia rivers and is particularly valuable for its account of the native tribes of those regions. Henry was drowned near Astoria, Oreg.

Henry, John: see John Henry.

Henry, Joseph, 1797-1878, American physicist, b. Albany, N.Y., educated at Albany Academy. He taught (1826-32) mathematics and natural philosophy at Albany Academy and was professor of natural philosophy (1832-46) at Princeton (then the College of New Jersey). From 1846 he served as the first secretary and director of the newly founded Smithsonian Institution; he introduced and developed many of its activities and established its general policies. Before assuming his responsibilities at the Smithsonian, he had made notable contributions to the physical sciences, especially in electromagnetism. Henry improved the electromagnet, increasing its strength and fitting it for practical use. He invented and operated the first electromagnetic telegraph, which formed the basis for the commercial telegraphic system. He discovered self-inductance, and the unit of inductance is often called the henry in his honor. Independently of Michael Faraday, he discovered the principle of the induced current, basic to the dynamo, transformer, and many other devices. Henry invented a small electromagnetic motor, and extended the work on induced currents to show that an induced current can be used to induce another current in a nearby circuit and that resulting currents in turn can induce others. His numerous other contributions include the institution of the weather report system.

Henry, O.: see O. Henry.

Henry, Patrick, 1736-99, political leader in the American Revolution, b. Hanover co., Va. Largely self-educated, he became a prominent trial lawyer. Henry bitterly denounced (1765) the Stamp Act and in the years that followed helped fan the fires of revolt in the South. As an orator he knew no equal. Several phrases attributed to him—e.g., "If this be treason, make the most of it" and "Give me liberty or give me death"—are familiar to all Americans. Henry became a leader among the so-called radicals and spoke clearly for individual liberties. He was a delegate to the house of burgesses (1765-74), the Continental Congress (1774-76), and the Virginia provincial convention (1775). His hopes for a military career in the American Revolution were frustrated, but as governor of Virginia (1776-79) he sent George Rogers Clark to the Illinois country. He was (1784-86) again governor and led the fight for the Virginia Religious Freedom Act of 1785. Although he later became a Federalist, Henry opposed ratification of the U.S. Constitution, believing that it endangered state sovereignty, and he worked successfully to have the first 10 amendments (Bill of Rights) added to the Constitution.

Henry, Cape, SE Va., promontary at the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, E of Norfolk. Cape Henry Memorial marks the approximate spot where the Jamestown settlers landed in 1607. In 1939 the site was included in Colonial National Historical Park.

Henry, Fort, Tenn.: see Fort Henry.

Bacon, Henry, 1866-1924, American architect, b. Watseka, Ill. He began his professional career with the firm of McKim, Mead, and White, but after 1903 he practiced independently. Among the important structures designed by him are the Lincoln Memorial at Washington, D.C. (completed 1917), and the World War Memorial at Yale Univ.

Watterson, Henry, 1840-1921, American journalist, b. Washington, D.C. Throughout most of his life he was known as "Marse Henry." Early in life he became a Washington newspaper reporter. He served with the Confederate army in the Civil War and for a time edited the Chattanooga (Tenn.) Rebel. After working on newspapers in Alabama, Ohio, and Tennessee, Watterson became an editor of the Louisville (Ky.) Journal. In 1868 he merged that paper with the competing Louisville Courier to form the Courier-Journal, which soon became locally influential and nationally famous. In his editorials Watterson argued compellingly for the rights of African Americans and the restoration of home rule to the South. In 1876-77 he served in Congress and vigorously supported S. J. Tilden for President in 1876. He was sharply critical of President Grover Cleveland and opposed William J. Bryan and free silver. His editorials urging the United States to declare war on Germany earned him a Pulitzer Prize. He supported Woodrow Wilson only intermittently, bitterly attacking American participation in the League of Nations. In 1923 a volume of his editorials, edited by Arthur Krock, was published.

Kelsey, Henry, c.1670-1729, English fur trader and explorer in Canada. He entered the service of the Hudson's Bay Company in 1684. He was sent (1689) inland to secure Native American trade and later (1691-92) made his much disputed journey into W Canada; some say he went southwest, but evidence points to his being west of Churchill in the region of Reindeer Lake. He was present when York Factory was surrendered to the sieur d'Iberville in 1694 and in 1697. He then served the company in a number of different posts. He returned to the Hudson's Bay region (1714) and served as second in command (1714-17), as governor of York (1717-18), and as governor of all the company's forts in the region (1718-22). He was replaced as governor in 1722 and returned to England. In 1719 he commanded an expedition to explore the northwest coast of Hudson Bay.

(born April 8, 1850, Norfolk, Conn., U.S.—died April 30, 1934, Baltimore, Md.) U.S. pathologist. He studied pathology in Germany before returning to the U.S. to open the nation's first pathology laboratory, at Bellevue Hospital Medical College in New York City (1879). From 1893 he directed the rise of Johns Hopkins University, where he developed the country's first true university department of pathology. He recruited William Osler and William S. Halsted for the faculty and was the medical school's first dean (1893–98). His curriculum revolutionized U.S. medicine by demanding that students study physical sciences and be actively involved in clinical duties and laboratory work. Welch also demonstrated the effects of diphtheria toxin and discovered bacteria involved in wound fever and gas gangrene.

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(born May 16, 1801, Florida, N.Y., U.S.—died Oct. 10, 1872, Auburn, N.Y.) U.S. politician. He served in the New York state senate (1830–34) and as governor (1839–43). In the U.S. Senate (1849–61), he was an antislavery leader in the Whig and Republican parties. A close adviser to Pres. Abraham Lincoln, he served as U.S. secretary of state (1861–69). He helped prevent foreign recognition of the Confederacy and obtained settlement in the Trent Affair. In 1865 he was stabbed by a conspirator of John Wilkes Booth but recovered. He is best remembered for successfully negotiating the Alaska Purchase (1867), which critics called Seward's Folly.

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(born April 4, 1843, Keesville, N.Y., U.S.—died June 30, 1942, New York, N.Y.) U.S. photographer. As a boy, he worked for a photographic studio in Troy, N.Y. After the American Civil War he went west and opened a studio in Omaha. He was the official photographer for the U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (1870–78), and his photographs were instrumental in the establishment of Yellowstone National Park.

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(born Feb. 9, 1773, Charles City county, Va.—died April 4, 1841, Washington, D.C., U.S.) Ninth president of the U.S. (1841). Born into a politically prominent family, he enlisted in the army at age 18 and served under Anthony Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. In 1798 he became secretary of the Northwest Territories and in 1800 governor of the new Indiana Territory. In response to pressure from white settlers, he negotiated treaties with the Indians that ceded millions of acres of additional land to the U.S. When Tecumseh organized an uprising in 1811, Harrison led a U.S. force to defeat the Indians at the Battle of Tippecanoe, a victory that largely established his reputation in the public mind. In the War of 1812 he was made a brigadier general and defeated the British and their Indian allies at the Battle of the Thames in Ontario. After the war he moved to Ohio, where he became prominent in the Whig Party. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1816–19) and Senate (1825–28). As the Whig candidate in the 1836 presidential election, he lost narrowly. In 1840 he and his running mate, John Tyler, won election with a slogan emphasizing Harrison's frontier triumph: “Tippecanoe and Tyler too.” The 68-year-old Harrison delivered his inaugural speech without a hat or overcoat in a cold drizzle, contracted pneumonia, and died one month later; he was the first U.S. president to die in office.

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(born Feb. 11, 1800, Melbury Abbas, Dorset, Eng.—died Sept. 17, 1877, Lacock Abbey, near Chippenham, Wiltshire) English chemist and pioneer photographer. In 1840 he developed the calotype, an early photographic process that improved on the daguerreotype; it involved the use of a photographic negative from which multiple prints could be made. In 1835 he published his first article documenting a photographic discovery, that of the paper negative. His The Pencil of Nature (1844–46) was the first book with photographic illustrations. Talbot also published many articles on mathematics, astronomy, and physics.

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(born circa 1778, Powhatan, Va., U.S.—died March 26, 1838, Cooper county, Mo.) U.S. fur trader. Arriving in Missouri about 1802, he prospered in mining and land speculation. In 1820 he became the state's first lieutenant governor. With Andrew Henry (1771–1833), he organized the Rocky Mountain Fur Co. in 1822 and established a trading post at the mouth of the Yellowstone River. Forced to abandon the post by Indians, he instituted the annual rendezvous (1825), where trappers would trade their furs to him for supplies for the next year. By 1827 he had made a fortune and retired. Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives (1831–37), he championed Western interests.

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(born April 8, 1850, Norfolk, Conn., U.S.—died April 30, 1934, Baltimore, Md.) U.S. pathologist. He studied pathology in Germany before returning to the U.S. to open the nation's first pathology laboratory, at Bellevue Hospital Medical College in New York City (1879). From 1893 he directed the rise of Johns Hopkins University, where he developed the country's first true university department of pathology. He recruited William Osler and William S. Halsted for the faculty and was the medical school's first dean (1893–98). His curriculum revolutionized U.S. medicine by demanding that students study physical sciences and be actively involved in clinical duties and laboratory work. Welch also demonstrated the effects of diphtheria toxin and discovered bacteria involved in wound fever and gas gangrene.

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(born Oct. 7, 1888, Adair county, Iowa, U.S.—died Nov. 18, 1965, Danbury, Conn.) U.S. politician. An agricultural expert, he succeeded his father as editor of Wallace's Farmer (1924–33). In 1932 he helped Franklin D. Roosevelt win Iowa. As U.S. secretary of agriculture (1933–40), he shaped the administration's farm policy, including the Agricultural Adjustment Administration. He served as vice president during Roosevelt's third term but was replaced in 1944 by Harry S. Truman. He was later secretary of commerce (1945–46). Very liberal in his views, he helped form the Progressive Party in 1948 and was its candidate against Truman in the presidential election, receiving more than one million votes. He wrote several books, including Sixty Million Jobs (1945).

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orig. Ferdinand Heinrich Gustav Hilgard

(born April 10, 1835, Speyer, Bavaria—died Nov. 12, 1900, Dobbs Ferry, N.Y., U.S.) German-born U.S. journalist and financier. In 1853 he immigrated to the U.S., where he first found work with German-language newspapers. During the Civil War he was a correspondent for two New York City newspapers. In 1881 he purchased the Nation magazine and the New York Evening Post. In the 1870s he organized several railroads in Oregon, and from 1881 to 1884 he was president of the Northern Pacific, a transcontinental railroad completed under his management despite large cost overruns; he later served as chairman of the board (1888–93). He bought two Edison companies and created the Edison General Electric Co. in 1889, serving as president until its reorganization in 1892 as the General Electric Co.

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(born April 17, 1622, Llansantffraed, Breconshire, Wales—died April 23, 1695, Llansantffraed) Anglo-Welsh poet and mystic. Vaughan studied law but from the 1650s practiced medicine. After writing two volumes of secular poems, he read the religious poet George Herbert and gave up “idle verse.” He is chiefly remembered for the spiritual vision or imagination evident in his fresh and convincing religious verse and is considered one of the major practitioners of Metaphysical poetry. Works that reveal the depth of his religious convictions include Silex Scintillans (1650, enlarged 1655; “The Glittering Flint”) and the prose Mount of Olives (1652). He also translated short moral and religious works and two medical works.

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(born July 12, 1817, Concord, Mass., U.S.—died May 6, 1862, Concord) U.S. thinker, essayist, and naturalist. Thoreau graduated from Harvard University and taught school for several years before leaving his job to become a poet of nature. Back in Concord, he came under the influence of Ralph Waldo Emerson and began to publish pieces in the Transcendentalist magazine The Dial. In the years 1845–47, to demonstrate how satisfying a simple life could be, he lived in a hut beside Concord's Walden Pond; essays recording his daily life were assembled for his masterwork, Walden (1854). His A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (1849) was the only other book he published in his lifetime. He reflected on a night he spent in jail protesting the Mexican-American War in the essay “Civil Disobedience” (1849), which would later influence such figures as Mohandas K. Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. In later years his interest in Transcendentalism waned, and he became a dedicated abolitionist. His many nature writings and records of his wanderings in Canada, Maine, and Cape Cod display the mind of a keen naturalist. After his death his collected writings were published in 20 volumes, and further writings have continued to appear in print.

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(born July 31, 1816, Southampton county, Va., U.S.—died March 28, 1870, San Francisco, Calif.) U.S. general. He was a graduate of West Point. When the American Civil War broke out, he remained loyal to the Union despite his Southern birth. He commanded an independent force in eastern Kentucky, where he won the first important Union victory in the west in 1862. At the Battle of Chickamauga he organized an unyielding defense, earning promotion to brigadier general and the nickname “the Rock of Chickamauga.” In 1864 he defeated the Confederate forces of Gen. John B. Hood (1831–79) in the Battle of Nashville, earning another promotion and the gratitude of Congress.

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(born May 4, 1825, Ealing, Middlesex, Eng.—died June 29, 1895, Eastbourne, Sussex) British biologist. The son of a schoolmaster, he earned a medical degree. After working as a surgeon on a surveying expedition in the South Pacific (1846–50), during which he carried out extensive studies of marine organisms, he taught for many years at the Royal School of Mines in London (1854–85). In the 1850s he established his reputation with his important papers on animal individuality, certain mollusks, the methods of paleontology, the methods and principles of science and science education, the structure and functions of nerves, and the vertebrate skull. He was one of the earliest and strongest supporters of Darwinism; his 1860 debate with Bishop Samuel Wilberforce gained widespread attention. In the 1860s Huxley did valuable work in paleontology and classification, especially classification of birds. Later in life he turned to theology; he is said to have coined the word agnostic to describe his views. Few scientists have been as influential over such a wide field of scientific development and as effective in the total movement of thought and action within their own generation.

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(born Nov. 30, 1880, Calcutta, India—died Jan. 16, 1962, London, Eng.) English economic historian. He was educated at Rugby School and at the University of Oxford, where he wrote his first major work, The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century (1912). From 1913 he taught at the London School of Economics. An ardent socialist, he helped formulate the economic and moral viewpoint of the Labour Party in the 1920s and '30s. In his most influential book, The Acquisitive Society (1920), he argued that the acquisitiveness of capitalist society was a morally wrong motivating principle. His Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926), which built on the work of Max Weber, also became a classic.

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(born June 21, 1859, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.—died May 25, 1937, Paris, France) U.S. painter. He studied under Thomas Eakins at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, where he was the only black student. He moved to Paris in 1891, and by 1894 his work was being exhibited at the annual Salons, where he was awarded honourable mention in 1896 for Daniel in the Lions' Den and won a medal in 1897 for his Raising of Lazarus. He gained international acclaim and many awards for his landscapes and his treatments of biblical themes. He was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1923, and in 1927 he became the first African American granted full membership in the National Academy of Design.

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(born Feb. 11, 1800, Melbury Abbas, Dorset, Eng.—died Sept. 17, 1877, Lacock Abbey, near Chippenham, Wiltshire) English chemist and pioneer photographer. In 1840 he developed the calotype, an early photographic process that improved on the daguerreotype; it involved the use of a photographic negative from which multiple prints could be made. In 1835 he published his first article documenting a photographic discovery, that of the paper negative. His The Pencil of Nature (1844–46) was the first book with photographic illustrations. Talbot also published many articles on mathematics, astronomy, and physics.

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(born Sept. 3, 1856, Boston, Mass., U.S.—died April 14, 1924, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. architect, the father of modern U.S. architecture. Sullivan was accepted at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris but was a restless student. After working for several Chicago firms, he joined the office of Dankmar Adler (1844–1900) in 1879, becoming Adler's partner at age 24. Their 14-year association produced more than 100 buildings, many of them landmarks. Their first important work was the Auditorium Building in Chicago (1889), a load-bearing stone structure with a 17-story tower, unadorned on the arcaded exterior and dazzlingly rich on the interior. Their most important skyscraper is the 10-story steel-framed Wainwright Building, St. Louis, Mo. (1890–91); above its two-story base, the vertical elements are stressed and horizontals recessed, and it is capped by a decorative frieze and cornice. During this period the young Frank Lloyd Wright spent six years as apprentice to Sullivan, who would be a major influence on the younger architect. In 1895 Sullivan's partnership with Adler dissolved, and his practice began a steady decline. One of his few major commissions was the Carson Pirie Scott store in Chicago (1898–1904), noted for its broad windows and exuberant ornamentation. Sullivan's ornamentation was based not on precedent but on geometry and natural forms. He considered it obvious that building design should indicate a building's functions and that, where the function does not change, the form should not change; hence his influential dictum “Form follows function.”

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(born Dec. 7, 1545, Temple Newsom, Yorkshire, Eng.—died Feb. 9/10, 1567, Edinburgh, Scot.) English nobleman, second husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, and father of James I. Son of Matthew Stewart, earl of Lennox (1516–71), a pretender to the Scottish throne, Henry wed his cousin Mary in 1565 despite the opposition of Elizabeth I and Scottish Protestants. It became evident, even to Mary, that superficial charm was his only positive attribute. After he played a role in the murder of Mary's secretary, David Riccio, he was himself murdered at age 21 at the instigation of James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell (1535–78), whom Mary soon married.

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(born Sept. 21, 1867, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died Oct. 20, 1950, Huntington, N.Y.) U.S. statesman. A lawyer, he served as U.S. secretary of war (1911–13), governor of the Philippines (1927–29), and U.S. secretary of state (1929–33). After the Japanese occupation of Manchuria (1931), he sent to Japan a diplomatic note, the contents of which became known as the Stimson Doctrine, refusing to recognize territorial changes and reaffirming U.S. treaty rights. As secretary of war (1940–45), he oversaw the expansion and training of U.S. forces in World War II. He was the chief adviser on atomic policy to Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman and recommended use of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

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orig. Heinrich Wilhelm Stiegel

(born May 13, 1729, near Cologne—died Jan. 10, 1785, Charming Forge, Pa., U.S.) German-born U.S. ironmaster and glassmaker. After arriving in Philadelphia in 1750, he quickly became a prosperous ironmaster. In 1762 he bought a huge tract of land in Lancaster County and built the town of Manheim, where he established American Flint Glassworks; there he imported Venetian, German, and English glassworkers to make utilitarian vessels and high-quality blue, purple, green, and clear tableware. He owned three mansions, where his comings and goings were announced by a cannon salute and band music, but his lavish style and adverse economic conditions eventually bankrupted him.

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(born April 17, 1866, London, Eng.—died May 2, 1927, Kingston Harbour, Jam.) British physiologist. His studies of lymph secretion clarified the roles of different pressures in fluid exchanges between vessels and tissues. Starling and William Bayliss showed how nerve impulses control peristalsis and coined the term hormone. Starling also found that water and necessary chemicals filtered out by the kidneys are reabsorbed at the lower end of the nephron. His Principles of Human Physiology (1912), continually revised, was a standard international text.

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orig. John Rowlands

(born Jan. 28, 1841, Denbigh, Denbighshire, Wales—died May 10, 1904, London, Eng.) British-U.S. explorer of central Africa. An illegitimate child, Stanley grew up partly in a British workhouse; he sailed to the U.S. as a cabin boy in 1859. After becoming a journalist for the New York Herald in 1867, he embarked (1871) on a journey to locate David Livingstone, of whom little had been heard since his departure for Africa in 1866. On finding him at Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika, Stanley uttered the famous words “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?” He further explored central Africa for extended periods between 1874 and 1884, often in the service of Leopold II of Belgium, for whom he paved the way for the creation of the Congo Free State. Stanley's last expedition (1888) was for the relief of Mehmed Emin Pasha, who had been cut off by the Mahdist revolt in the Sudan; he escorted Emin and 1,500 others to the eastern coast. His highly popular books include Through the Dark Continent (1878) and In Darkest Africa (1890).

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(born Oct. 6, 1573, Cowdray, Sussex, Eng.—died Nov. 10, 1624, Bergen op Zoom, Neth.) English nobleman, patron of William Shakespeare. Grandson of the 1st earl of Southampton, he became a favourite of Elizabeth I. He was a liberal patron of writers, including Thomas Nashe. Shakespeare dedicated two long poems to him (1593, 1594), and he has often been identified as the noble youth addressed in most of Shakespeare's sonnets. He accompanied the 2nd earl of Essex on expeditions to Cádiz and the Azores (1596, 1597). For supporting the Essex rebellion (1601), he was imprisoned (1601–03); following James I's accession, he regained his place at court. He became a privy councillor in 1619, but he lost favour by opposing the 1st duke of Buckingham. He and his son volunteered to fight for the United Provinces against Spain, but, soon after landing in the Netherlands, they both died of fever.

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(b. July 2, 1862, Wigton, Cumberland, Eng.—d. March 12, 1942, London) British scientist, a pioneer in solid-state physics. With his son (William) Lawrence Bragg (1890–1971), he shared a 1915 Nobel Prize for research on the determination of crystal structures and Lawrence's discovery (1912) of the Bragg law of X-ray diffraction. The Bragg ionization spectrometer William designed and built is the prototype of all modern X-ray and neutron diffractometers; the two men used it to make the first exact measurements of X-ray wavelengths and crystal data.

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(born 1748, Gibraltar—died Jan. 12, 1812, London, Eng.) British army officer and governor-general of Canada (1807–11). In the American Revolution, he was wounded at the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775 and helped repel the American army's invasion of Canada in 1776. He later served in India. As governor-general in Canada, he cooperated with the governing clique in Quebec but conducted an unpopular repressive policy toward French Canadians. He resigned in 1811 and returned to England.

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(born Feb. 7, 1837, Denholm, Roxburghshire, Scot.—died July 26, 1915, Oxford, Oxfordshire, Eng.) Scottish lexicographer. He taught in a grammar school (1855–85). His Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland (1873) and a major article on English for Encyclopædia Britannica (1878) established him as a leading philologist. He was hired by the Philological Society as editor of the vast New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, later called the Oxford English Dictionary, in 1879, and he applied himself to the work with legendary energy and resourcefulness. The first volume appeared in 1884, and by his death he had completed about half the dictionary.

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(born June 22, 1856, Bradenham, Norfolk, Eng.—died May 14, 1925, London) British novelist. After holding a series of official posts in South Africa (1875–81), he began writing stories set in Africa. Of his 34 colourful adventure novels, the best-known is King Solomon's Mines (1885); others include She (1887), Allan Quatermain (1887), Cleopatra (1889), and Ayesha (1905). Also a farmer, he wrote A Farmer's Year (1899) and Rural England (2 vol., 1902), and he was knighted in 1912 for his work on agricultural commissions.

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(born March 4, 1756, Stockbridge, Scot.—died July 8, 1823, Edinburgh) Scottish portrait painter. Though apprenticed early to a goldsmith, he lacked formal training as a painter. He worked principally as a miniaturist and evolved a distinctive style of oil portraiture, painting directly on the canvas without preliminary drawings. His portraits are characterized by a vigorous handling of paint and vivid and experimental lighting effects, usually from behind the sitters' heads. He was elected president of the Edinburgh Society of Artists (1812) and Royal Academician (1815), knighted in 1822, and appointed His Majesty's Limner for Scotland (1822).

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orig. John Rowlands

(born Jan. 28, 1841, Denbigh, Denbighshire, Wales—died May 10, 1904, London, Eng.) British-U.S. explorer of central Africa. An illegitimate child, Stanley grew up partly in a British workhouse; he sailed to the U.S. as a cabin boy in 1859. After becoming a journalist for the New York Herald in 1867, he embarked (1871) on a journey to locate David Livingstone, of whom little had been heard since his departure for Africa in 1866. On finding him at Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika, Stanley uttered the famous words “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?” He further explored central Africa for extended periods between 1874 and 1884, often in the service of Leopold II of Belgium, for whom he paved the way for the creation of the Congo Free State. Stanley's last expedition (1888) was for the relief of Mehmed Emin Pasha, who had been cut off by the Mahdist revolt in the Sudan; he escorted Emin and 1,500 others to the eastern coast. His highly popular books include Through the Dark Continent (1878) and In Darkest Africa (1890).

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(born 1635, Llanrhymney, Glamorgan, Wales—died Aug. 25, 1688, probably Lawrencefield, Jam.) Welsh buccaneer. In the second Anglo-Dutch War, he commanded buccaneers against the Dutch colonies in the Caribbean. After capturing Puerto Príncipe in Cuba and sacking the city of Portobelo, he set out in 1670 with 36 ships and 2,000 buccaneers to capture the major Spanish colonial city of Panamá, defeated a large Spanish force, and sacked and burned the city. On the return journey, he deserted his followers and took most of the booty. In 1674 he was knighted and sent to Jamaica as deputy governor. An exaggerated account of Morgan's exploits created his popular reputation as a bloodthirsty pirate.

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(born Aug. 24, 1872, London, Eng.—died May 20, 1956, Rapallo, Italy) English caricaturist, writer, and dandy. His sophisticated drawings and parodies were unique in capturing, usually without malice, whatever was pretentious, affected, or absurd in his famous and fashionable contemporaries. His first literary collection, The Works of Max Beerbohm (1896), and his first book of drawings, Caricatures of Twenty-five Gentlemen (1896), were followed by the charming fable The Happy Hypocrite (1897) and his only novel, Zuleika Dobson (1911), a burlesque of Oxford life. His story collection Seven Men (1919) is considered a masterpiece.

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(born Aug. 15, 1822, Kelso, Roxburgh, Scot.—died Feb. 3, 1888, Cannes, France) British jurist and legal historian. He taught civil law at the University of Cambridge (1847–54) and lectured on Roman law at the Inns of Court. These lectures became the basis of his Ancient Law (1861) and Early History of Institutions (1875), which influenced both political theory and anthropology. In 1869 he became the first professor of comparative jurisprudence at the University of Oxford; in 1887 he became professor of international law at Cambridge. As a member of the council of the governor-general of India (1863–69), he shaped plans for the codification of Indian law. He was knighted in 1871.

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orig. John Henry Brodribb

(born Feb. 6, 1838, Keinton Mandeville, Somerset, Eng.—died Oct. 13, 1905, Bradford, Yorkshire) British actor. He toured for 10 years with a stock company before making his London debut in 1866. With his success in The Bells (1871), he became a leading actor in H.L. Bateman's company (1871–77). As actor-manager of the Lyceum Theatre (from 1878), he made it London's most successful theatre. He formed a celebrated acting partnership with Ellen Terry that lasted until the company dissolved in 1902. They were noted for their Shakespearean roles, and their theatrical qualities complemented each other: he the brooding introvert, she the spontaneous charmer.

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(born April 16?, 1730?—died Dec. 23, 1795, Cornwall, Eng.) British commander in chief during the American Revolution. Commissioned in the British army in 1751, he went to North America in 1775 as second in command to William Howe. He commanded British troops to victories in New York and then succeeded to the supreme command on Howe's retirement in 1778. He led an offensive in the Carolinas in 1780 and effected the fall of Charleston. On his return to New York, he left Charles Cornwallis in charge of subsequent operations, which ultimately resulted in the British surrender after the Siege of Yorktown. He resigned in 1781 and returned to England, where he found himself blamed for the Yorktown defeat.

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orig. Henry Campbell

(born Sept. 7, 1836, Glasgow, Scot.—died April 22, 1908, London, Eng.) British politician. A member of the House of Commons from 1868, he was elected leader of the Liberal Party in 1899 and served as prime minister (1905–08). His popularity unified his badly divided party. Though much of his legislative program was nullified by the House of Lords, he obtained approval of the Trades Disputes Act of 1906. He took the lead in granting self-government to the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony, thereby securing the Boers' loyalty to the British Empire.

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(born Jan. 19, 1813, Charlton, Hertfordshire, Eng.—died March 15, 1898, London) British inventor and engineer. Son of a metallurgist, he set up his own casting business at 17. At that time the only iron-based construction materials were cast iron and wrought iron. So-called steel was made by adding carbon to pure forms of wrought iron (see wootz); the resulting material was used almost entirely for cutting tools. During the Crimean War Bessemer worked to devise a stronger cast iron for cannon. The result was a process for the inexpensive production of large, slag-free ingots of steel as workable as any wrought iron. He eventually also discovered how to remove excess oxygen from the iron. The Bessemer process (1856) led to the development of the Bessemer converter. Seealso basic Bessemer process; R.F. Mushet; puddling process.

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(born , Feb. 15, 1874, Kilkea, County Kildare, Ire.—died Jan. 5, 1922, Grytviken, South Georgia) British explorer. In 1901 he joined Robert Falcon Scott's expedition to the Antarctic. He returned to Antarctica in 1908 and led a sledging party to within 97 mi (156 km) of the pole. In 1914 he led the British Trans-Antarctic Expedition, which planned to cross Antarctica via the South Pole. His expedition ship Endurance was caught in pack ice and drifted for 10 months before being crushed. Shackleton and his crew drifted on ice floes for another five months until they reached Elephant Island. He and five others sailed 800 mi (1,300 km) to South Georgia Island to get help, then he led four relief expeditions to rescue his men. Shackleton died on South Georgia at the outset of another Antarctic expedition.

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(born March 7, 1802, London, Eng.—died Oct. 1, 1873, London) British painter and sculptor. He studied with his father, an engraver and writer, and at the Royal Academy. He specialized in animals and developed great skill in depicting animal anatomy; he sometimes humanized his animal subjects to the point of sentimentality or moralizing (e.g., Dignity and Impudence, 1839). He achieved great professional and social success and was a favourite painter of Queen Victoria. He was elected to the Royal Academy in 1831 and knighted in 1850. As a sculptor, he is best known for his bronze lions at the base of Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square (unveiled 1867).

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(born Oct. 31, 1895, Paris, France—died Jan. 29, 1970, Marlow, Buckinghamshire, Eng.) British military historian and strategist. He left Cambridge University to join the British army at the outbreak of World War I and retired as a captain in 1927. He was an early advocate of air power and mechanized tank warfare. He wrote for London newspapers from 1925 to 1945. His writings on strategy, which emphasized the elements of mobility and surprise, were more influential in Germany than in France or England; his “expanding torrent” theory of attack became the basis for German blitzkrieg warfare in 1939–41. The author of more than 30 books, he was knighted in 1966.

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(born May 31, 1838, Skipton, Yorkshire, Eng.—died Aug. 29, 1900, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire) British philosopher. Educated at Cambridge, he remained there as a fellow (from 1859) and professor (from 1883). His Methods of Ethics (1874) is considered by some the most significant 19th-century ethical work in English. Drawing on the utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill and the categorical imperative of Immanuel Kant, he proposed a system of “universalistic hedonism” that would reconcile the apparent conflict between the pleasure of self and the pleasure of others. His other writings include Principles of Political Economy (1883) and Elements of Politics (1891). He also cofounded the Society for Psychical Research (1882) and helped found Cambridge's first women's college.

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(born March 6, 1831, Albany, N.Y., U.S.—died Aug. 5, 1888, Nonquitt, Mass.) U.S. army officer. He graduated from West Point and served at frontier posts. In the American Civil War he led a Union division in Tennessee and helped win the Battle of Chattanooga with his cavalry charge up Missionary Ridge. In the East he became commander of the cavalry (1864) and led raids on Confederate forces around Richmond, Va. As commander of the Army of the Shenandoah, he drove Confederate forces under Jubal Early from the Shenandoah Valley. He joined Ulysses S. Grant to help secure Union victories in the Petersburg Campaign. After the war he became general of the army (1883).

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(born , Feb. 15, 1874, Kilkea, County Kildare, Ire.—died Jan. 5, 1922, Grytviken, South Georgia) British explorer. In 1901 he joined Robert Falcon Scott's expedition to the Antarctic. He returned to Antarctica in 1908 and led a sledging party to within 97 mi (156 km) of the pole. In 1914 he led the British Trans-Antarctic Expedition, which planned to cross Antarctica via the South Pole. His expedition ship Endurance was caught in pack ice and drifted for 10 months before being crushed. Shackleton and his crew drifted on ice floes for another five months until they reached Elephant Island. He and five others sailed 800 mi (1,300 km) to South Georgia Island to get help, then he led four relief expeditions to rescue his men. Shackleton died on South Georgia at the outset of another Antarctic expedition.

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(born May 16, 1801, Florida, N.Y., U.S.—died Oct. 10, 1872, Auburn, N.Y.) U.S. politician. He served in the New York state senate (1830–34) and as governor (1839–43). In the U.S. Senate (1849–61), he was an antislavery leader in the Whig and Republican parties. A close adviser to Pres. Abraham Lincoln, he served as U.S. secretary of state (1861–69). He helped prevent foreign recognition of the Confederacy and obtained settlement in the Trent Affair. In 1865 he was stabbed by a conspirator of John Wilkes Booth but recovered. He is best remembered for successfully negotiating the Alaska Purchase (1867), which critics called Seward's Folly.

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(born March 28, 1793, Albany county, N.Y., U.S.—died Dec. 10, 1864, Washington, D.C.) U.S. explorer and ethnologist. He served as topographer on an expedition to the Lake Superior region (1820), then married a woman who was part Ojibwa and became an Indian agent. In 1832 he discovered the source of the Mississippi River at Lake Itaska, Minn. A treaty he concluded with the Ojibwa in 1836 ceded much of their land in northern Michigan to the U.S. Schoolcraft's six-volume Indian Tribes of the United States (1851–57) was a pioneering, though flawed, work.

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(born , Jan. 10, 1847, Frankfurt am Main—died Sept. 25, 1920, New York, N.Y., U.S.) German-born U.S. financier and philanthropist. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1865 and in 1875 joined the investment-banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. He succeeded his father-in-law as head of the firm in 1885 and became one of the leading railroad bankers in the U.S. He played a pivotal role in the reorganization of several transcontinental lines, notably the Union Pacific Railroad and the Northern Pacific Railway. During the Russo-Japanese War he sold Japanese bonds in the U.S., for which he was decorated by the emperor of Japan. His extensive philanthropies included large contributions to Barnard College and the Jewish Theological Seminary.

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(born Sept. 29, 1838, Priestley Plantation, La., U.S.—died April 27, 1886, Brookline, Mass.) U.S. architect. He studied at Harvard University in Cambridge, Mass., and the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. His designs for Boston's Brattle Square (1870–72) and Trinity (1872–77) churches won him a national reputation. He designed houses, libraries, suburban railroad stations, educational buildings, and commercial and civic structures. Instead of the narrow vertical proportions and Gothic features used by his contemporaries, he favoured horizontal lines, simple silhouettes, and large-scale Romanesque or Byzantine-inspired details. The Crane Memorial Library in Quincy, Mass. (1880–82), with its granite base, clerestory windows, tiled gable roof, and cavernous entrance arch, stands among his finest mature works. His Romanesque style had an integrity seldom achieved by his many imitators, and the functionalism of his designs presaged the work of Louis H. Sullivan.

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orig. Ethel Florence Lindesay Richardson

(born Jan. 3, 1870, Melbourne, Austl.—died March 20, 1946, Fairlight, Sussex, Eng.) Australian-born English novelist. In 1888 she left Australia to study music in Germany, and she spent the rest of her life abroad, settling in England in 1904 with her husband, J.G. Robertson. Maurice Guest (1908), her antiromantic first novel, concerns a music student's disastrous love affair. Her masterpiece, The Fortunes of Richard Mahony, 3 vol. (1917–29), combining description of an Australian immigrant's life and work in the goldfields with a powerful character study, is considered the crowning achievement of modern Australian fiction to that time.

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(born Nov. 30, 1880, Calcutta, India—died Jan. 16, 1962, London, Eng.) English economic historian. He was educated at Rugby School and at the University of Oxford, where he wrote his first major work, The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century (1912). From 1913 he taught at the London School of Economics. An ardent socialist, he helped formulate the economic and moral viewpoint of the Labour Party in the 1920s and '30s. In his most influential book, The Acquisitive Society (1920), he argued that the acquisitiveness of capitalist society was a morally wrong motivating principle. His Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926), which built on the work of Max Weber, also became a classic.

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(born Jan. 20, 1732, Stratford, Va.—died June 19, 1794, Chantilly, Va., U.S.) U.S. statesman. As a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses (1758–75), he opposed the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts. He helped initiate the Committees of Correspondence and was active in the First and Second Continental Congress. On June 7, 1776, he introduced a resolution calling for independence from Britain. Its adoption led to the Declaration of Independence, which he signed, as he did the Articles of Confederation. He again served in Congress from 1784 to 1787, acting as its president in 1784. He opposed ratification of the Constitution of the United States because it lacked a bill of rights. He later served in the first U.S. Senate (1789–92).

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(born Aug. 1, 1815, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.—died Jan. 6, 1882, Rome, Italy) U.S. writer and lawyer. Dana left Harvard College because of weakened eyesight and shipped out as a common sailor; after regaining his health, he returned and became a lawyer. He is remembered for his autobiographical Two Years Before the Mast (1840), which revealed the abuses endured by sailors. The Seaman's Friend (1841) became the authoritative guide to seamen's legal rights and duties. He also produced a scholarly edition of Henry Wheaton's Elements of International Law (1866), provided free legal aid to fugitive slaves, and served as U.S. attorney for Massachusetts.

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(born Feb. 13, 1849, Blenheim Palace, near Woodstock, Oxfordshire, Eng.—died Jan. 24, 1895, London) British politician. Third son of the 7th duke of Marlborough, he entered the House of Commons in 1874. In the early 1880s he joined other Conservatives in forming the Fourth Party, which advocated a “Tory democracy” of progressive conservatism. In 1886, at age 37, he became leader of the House of Commons and chancellor of the Exchequer, but he resigned after his first budget was rejected. Though he had seemed destined to be prime minister, this miscalculation effectively ended his political career. He remained in the Commons until his death, but he lost interest in politics and devoted much time to horse racing. Winston Churchill was his son.

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(born March 4, 1756, Stockbridge, Scot.—died July 8, 1823, Edinburgh) Scottish portrait painter. Though apprenticed early to a goldsmith, he lacked formal training as a painter. He worked principally as a miniaturist and evolved a distinctive style of oil portraiture, painting directly on the canvas without preliminary drawings. His portraits are characterized by a vigorous handling of paint and vivid and experimental lighting effects, usually from behind the sitters' heads. He was elected president of the Edinburgh Society of Artists (1812) and Royal Academician (1815), knighted in 1822, and appointed His Majesty's Limner for Scotland (1822).

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(born circa 1659, London, Eng.—died Nov. 21, 1695, London) British composer. Little is known of his origins, but he was in the Chapel Royal choir from boyhood, and he probably studied with Pelham Humfrey (1647–74) and John Blow (1649–1708). His first known composition was written at age eight. When his voice changed, he assisted in keeping the royal instruments in repair and tuning the Westminster Abbey organ. He became organist there in 1679 and at the Chapel Royal in 1682. He wrote music in a number of genres. His opera Dido and Aeneas (1689) is notable for achieving a high degree of dramatic intensity within a narrow framework. This he followed with the “semi-operas” King Arthur (1691), The Fairy Queen (1692), and The Indian Queen (1695). He also wrote much incidental music, some 250 songs, 12 fantasias for viol consort, and many anthems and services. He is regarded as the greatest English composer after William Byrd and before the 20th century.

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(born March 6, 1831, Albany, N.Y., U.S.—died Aug. 5, 1888, Nonquitt, Mass.) U.S. army officer. He graduated from West Point and served at frontier posts. In the American Civil War he led a Union division in Tennessee and helped win the Battle of Chattanooga with his cavalry charge up Missionary Ridge. In the East he became commander of the cavalry (1864) and led raids on Confederate forces around Richmond, Va. As commander of the Army of the Shenandoah, he drove Confederate forces under Jubal Early from the Shenandoah Valley. He joined Ulysses S. Grant to help secure Union victories in the Petersburg Campaign. After the war he became general of the army (1883).

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(born 1696—died March 6, 1754, London, Eng.) British prime minister (1743–54). He was elected to Parliament in 1717 and, as a supporter of Robert Walpole, became secretary for war (1724) and paymaster of the forces (1730). He succeeded Walpole as prime minister and chancellor of the Exchequer in 1743 and led a stable Whig ministry with parliamentary assistance from his brother, Thomas Pelham-Holles, duke of Newcastle. Pelham resisted attempts to prolong the War of the Austrian Succession and signed the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). After the war, he introduced financial reforms, including lower military expenditures, a reduced land tax, and a consolidation of the national debt.

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(born May 29, 1736, Studley, Va.—died June 6, 1799, Red Hill, near Brookneal, Va., U.S.) American Revolutionary leader. Admitted to the bar in 1760, he soon built a large and profitable practice. His skill as an orator was displayed in the Parson's Cause trial (1763). Elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1765, he opposed the Stamp Act; during the next decade he became a leader of the radical opposition to British rule. He was a founding member of the Committees of Correspondence and a delegate to the Continental Congress. At a Virginia assembly in 1775 he delivered his famous speech in defense of liberty, which concluded with the words “Give me liberty or give me death.” He helped draft the state's first constitution in 1776 and was elected governor the same year (1776–79, 1784–86). As wartime governor, he ably supported Gen. George Washington; during his second term, he authorized the expedition of George Rogers Clark to invade the Illinois country. In 1788 he opposed ratification of the U.S. Constitution, which he felt did not sufficiently secure the rights of states and individuals. He was later instrumental in the adoption of the Bill of Rights.

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orig. William Sydney Porter

(born Sept. 11, 1862, Greensboro, N.C., U.S.—died June 5, 1910, New York, N.Y.) U.S. short-story writer. He wrote for newspapers and later worked as a bank teller in Texas, where he was convicted of embezzlement; he began writing stories in prison as O. Henry. He moved to New York, where his tales romanticizing the commonplace, particularly the life of ordinary New Yorkers, and often using coincidence and surprise endings, became highly popular. His collections include Cabbages and Kings (1904); The Four Million (1906), including “The Gift of the Magi”; The Trimmed Lamp (1907), including “The Last Leaf”; and Whirligigs (1910), including “The Ransom of Red Chief.”

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(born Feb. 25, 1540, Shottesham, Norfolk, Eng.—died June 15, 1614, London) English noble noted for his intrigues in the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. Younger brother of the 4th duke of Norfolk, he was implicated in efforts to free Mary, Queen of Scots. He successfully sought favour with the Scottish king James VI, who, on his accession as James I of England, made Howard a privy councillor (1603) and earl of Northampton (1604). As a judge at the trials of Walter Raleigh (1603) and Guy Fawkes (1605), he pressed for conviction.

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known as Cardinal Newman

(born Feb. 21, 1801, London, Eng.—died Aug. 11, 1890, Birmingham, Warwick) English churchman and man of letters. He attended the University of Oxford, where in 1833 he became the leader of the Oxford Movement, which stressed the Catholic elements in the English religious tradition and sought to reform the Church of England. He was received into the Roman Catholic church in 1845, but he came under suspicion among the more rigorous clergy because of his quasi-liberal spirit. A challenge from Charles Kingsley prompted him to write an eloquent exposition of his spiritual history, the widely admired Apologia pro Vita Sua (1864). The work assured his place in the church, and in 1879 he became a cardinal-deacon. He also wrote theological works, religious poetry, and several hymns, including “Lead, Kindly Light.”

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(born Feb. 7, 1837, Denholm, Roxburghshire, Scot.—died July 26, 1915, Oxford, Oxfordshire, Eng.) Scottish lexicographer. He taught in a grammar school (1855–85). His Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland (1873) and a major article on English for Encyclopædia Britannica (1878) established him as a leading philologist. He was hired by the Philological Society as editor of the vast New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, later called the Oxford English Dictionary, in 1879, and he applied himself to the work with legendary energy and resourcefulness. The first volume appeared in 1884, and by his death he had completed about half the dictionary.

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(born May 11, 1891, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died Feb. 6, 1967, Poughkeepsie, N.Y.) U.S. public official. He was editor of American Agriculturist (1922–33) and a close friend of Franklin D. Roosevelt. As secretary of the treasury in Roosevelt's cabinet (1934–45), he was responsible for financing the programs of the New Deal and the enormous military expenditures of World War II. Over $370 billion was spent during the period, three times more money than was spent by the 50 previous secretaries of the treasury. He resigned after Roosevelt's death and retired to his farm.

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(born 1635, Llanrhymney, Glamorgan, Wales—died Aug. 25, 1688, probably Lawrencefield, Jam.) Welsh buccaneer. In the second Anglo-Dutch War, he commanded buccaneers against the Dutch colonies in the Caribbean. After capturing Puerto Príncipe in Cuba and sacking the city of Portobelo, he set out in 1670 with 36 ships and 2,000 buccaneers to capture the major Spanish colonial city of Panamá, defeated a large Spanish force, and sacked and burned the city. On the return journey, he deserted his followers and took most of the booty. In 1674 he was knighted and sent to Jamaica as deputy governor. An exaggerated account of Morgan's exploits created his popular reputation as a bloodthirsty pirate.

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(born Nov. 21, 1818, near Aurora, N.Y., U.S.—died Dec. 17, 1881, Rochester, N.Y.) U.S. ethnologist and a principal founder of scientific anthropology. Morgan developed a deep interest in the American Indians and in 1846 was eventually adopted by the Seneca. His Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (1871) was a world survey of kinship systems that sought to establish connections between cultures and particularly to establish the Asiatic origin of the American Indians. This work led to a comprehensive theory of sociocultural evolution, set forth in Ancient Society (1877). He claimed that advances in social organization arose primarily from changes in food production and that society had progressed from a hunting-and-gathering stage (“savagery”) to one of settled agriculture (“barbarism”) to modern “civilization.” This theory, with the related theory that society originated in a state of sexual promiscuity and advanced through various forms of family life before culminating in monogamy, is now obsolete. For many years, however, Morgan was the dean of American anthropology, and his pioneering ideas influenced the theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, among others.

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(born July 30, 1898, Castleford, Eng.—died Aug. 31, 1986, Much Hadham) English sculptor and graphic artist. The son of a coal miner, he was enabled to study at the Royal College of Art by a rehabilitation grant after being wounded in World War I. His early works were strongly influenced by the Mayan sculpture he saw in a Paris museum. From circa 1931 on he experimented with abstract art, combining abstract shapes with the human figure and at times leaving the human figure behind altogether. When materials grew scarce during World War II, he concentrated on drawings of Londoners sheltering from bombs in Underground stations. Commissions for a Madonna and Child and a family group turned his style from abstraction to the more humanistic approach that became the basis of his international reputation. He returned to experimentation in the 1950s with angular, pierced standing figures in bronze. Much of his work is monumental, and he is particularly well known for a series of reclining nudes. Among his major commissions were sculptures for UNESCO's Paris headquarters (1957–58), Lincoln Center (1963–65), and the National Gallery of Art (1978).

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(born Dec. 26, 1891, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died June 7, 1980, Pacific Palisades, Calif.) U.S. writer and perennial bohemian. Miller wrote about his Brooklyn, N.Y., childhood in Black Spring (1936). Tropic of Cancer (1934), a monologue about his life as an impoverished expatriate in Paris, and Tropic of Capricorn (1939), which draws on his earlier New York phase, were banned as obscene in the U.S. and Britain until the 1960s. The Air-Conditioned Nightmare (1945) is a critical account of a tour of the U.S. He settled on the California coast, where he became the centre of a colony of admirers and wrote his Rosy Crucifixion trilogy, Sexus, Plexus, and Nexus (U.S. ed., 1965).

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(born Aug. 5, 1850, Château de Miromesnil?, near Dieppe, France—died July 6, 1893, Paris) French writer of short stories. His law studies were interrupted by the Franco-Prussian War; his experience as a volunteer provided him with material for some of his best works. Later, as a civil-service employee, he became a protégé of Gustave Flaubert. He first gained attention with “Boule de Suif” (1880; “Ball of Fat”), probably his finest story. In the next 10 years he published some 300 short stories, six novels, and three travel books. Taken together, his stories present a broad, naturalistic picture of French life from 1870 to 1890. His subjects include war, the Norman peasantry, the bureaucracy, life on the banks of the Seine, the emotional problems of the different classes, and, ominously, hallucination. Maupassant was phenomenally promiscuous, and before he was 25 years old his health was being eroded by syphilis. He attempted suicide in 1892 and was committed to an asylum, where he died at age 42. He is generally considered France's greatest master of the short story.

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known as Cardinal Manning

(born July 15, 1808, Totteridge, Hertfordshire, Eng.—died Jan. 14, 1892, London) British Roman Catholic cardinal. The son of a banker and member of Parliament, he was ordained a priest of the Church of England in 1833. A member of the Oxford movement, he became a Catholic in 1851 and was ordained a priest later that year. He rose rapidly in rank, being appointed archbishop of Westminster in 1865 and cardinal in 1875. He favoured the centralization of authority in the church (Ultramontanism) and supported stronger wording on papal infallibility than was eventually adopted by the First Vatican Council. He established many schools and was highly regarded for his concern for social welfare.

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(born Aug. 15, 1822, Kelso, Roxburgh, Scot.—died Feb. 3, 1888, Cannes, France) British jurist and legal historian. He taught civil law at the University of Cambridge (1847–54) and lectured on Roman law at the Inns of Court. These lectures became the basis of his Ancient Law (1861) and Early History of Institutions (1875), which influenced both political theory and anthropology. In 1869 he became the first professor of comparative jurisprudence at the University of Oxford; in 1887 he became professor of international law at Cambridge. As a member of the council of the governor-general of India (1863–69), he shaped plans for the codification of Indian law. He was knighted in 1871.

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(born April 3, 1898, Dengzhou, Shandong province, China—died Feb. 28, 1967, Phoenix, Ariz., U.S.) U.S. magazine publisher. Luce was born to U.S. missionary parents. He graduated from Yale University in 1920. While at Yale he had met Briton Hadden, with whom he launched Time in 1923. He added the business magazine Fortune in 1929 and Life magazine in 1936. Among other Luce magazines were House & Home, established in 1952, and Sports Illustrated, launched in 1954. His publications, founded as means of educating what Luce considered a poorly informed U.S. public, had many imitators, and Luce became one of the most powerful figures in the history of U.S. journalism. Both he and his wife, Clare Boothe Luce, had a major influence on the Republican Party and on national affairs.

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(born Sept. 3, 1856, Boston, Mass., U.S.—died April 14, 1924, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. architect, the father of modern U.S. architecture. Sullivan was accepted at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris but was a restless student. After working for several Chicago firms, he joined the office of Dankmar Adler (1844–1900) in 1879, becoming Adler's partner at age 24. Their 14-year association produced more than 100 buildings, many of them landmarks. Their first important work was the Auditorium Building in Chicago (1889), a load-bearing stone structure with a 17-story tower, unadorned on the arcaded exterior and dazzlingly rich on the interior. Their most important skyscraper is the 10-story steel-framed Wainwright Building, St. Louis, Mo. (1890–91); above its two-story base, the vertical elements are stressed and horizontals recessed, and it is capped by a decorative frieze and cornice. During this period the young Frank Lloyd Wright spent six years as apprentice to Sullivan, who would be a major influence on the younger architect. In 1895 Sullivan's partnership with Adler dissolved, and his practice began a steady decline. One of his few major commissions was the Carson Pirie Scott store in Chicago (1898–1904), noted for its broad windows and exuberant ornamentation. Sullivan's ornamentation was based not on precedent but on geometry and natural forms. He considered it obvious that building design should indicate a building's functions and that, where the function does not change, the form should not change; hence his influential dictum “Form follows function.”

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(born Feb. 13, 1849, Blenheim Palace, near Woodstock, Oxfordshire, Eng.—died Jan. 24, 1895, London) British politician. Third son of the 7th duke of Marlborough, he entered the House of Commons in 1874. In the early 1880s he joined other Conservatives in forming the Fourth Party, which advocated a “Tory democracy” of progressive conservatism. In 1886, at age 37, he became leader of the House of Commons and chancellor of the Exchequer, but he resigned after his first budget was rejected. Though he had seemed destined to be prime minister, this miscalculation effectively ended his political career. He remained in the Commons until his death, but he lost interest in politics and devoted much time to horse racing. Winston Churchill was his son.

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(born Feb. 27, 1807, Portland, Mass., U.S.—died March 24, 1882, Cambridge, Mass.) U.S. poet. Longfellow graduated from Bowdoin College and traveled in Europe before joining the modern-language faculties of Bowdoin (1829–35) and Harvard (1836–54). His Voices of the Night (1839), containing “The Psalm of Life” and “The Light of the Stars,” first won him popularity. Ballads and Other Poems (1841), including “The Wreck of the Hesperus” and “The Village Blacksmith,” swept the nation, as did his long poem Evangeline (1847). With Hiawatha (1855), The Courtship of Miles Standish (1858), and Tales of a Wayside Inn (1863), including “Paul Revere's Ride,” he became the best-loved American poet of the 19th century. He later translated Dante's Divine Comedy (1867) and published his intended masterpiece, Christus, a trilogy on Christianity (1872). The hallmarks of his verse are gentleness, simplicity, and an idealized vision of the world.

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(born June 29, 1910, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died July 28, 1969, New York City) U.S. composer, librettist, and lyricist. The son of a piano teacher, in 1936 he moved to Hollywood, where he worked with Burton Lane, Jule Styne, Jimmy McHugh, and Hoagy Carmichael. His wartime songs include “Praise the Lord and Pass the Ammunition” and “What Do You Do in the Infantry?”; postwar hits include “On a Slow Boat to China” and “Baby It's Cold Outside” (Academy Award, 1949). His first Broadway musical was Where's Charley? (1948; film, 1952). In 1950 he produced Guys and Dolls (film, 1955), one of the greatest American musicals. It was followed by The Most Happy Fella (1956) and How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (1962, Pulitzer Prize). His work for film includes the score for Hans Christian Andersen (1952).

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(born July 5, 1902, Nahant, Mass., U.S.—died Feb. 27, 1985, Beverly, Mass.) U.S. politician and diplomat. The grandson of Sen. Henry C. Lodge, he served in the U.S. Senate (1937–44, 1947–52) and as U.S. representative to the UN (1953–60). In 1960 he was the Republican vice presidential candidate under Richard Nixon. During the 1960s he served as U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam and as ambassador to West Germany. In 1969 he was the chief U.S. negotiator at the Paris peace talks with North Vietnam. He later served as special envoy to the Vatican.

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(born Oct. 31, 1895, Paris, France—died Jan. 29, 1970, Marlow, Buckinghamshire, Eng.) British military historian and strategist. He left Cambridge University to join the British army at the outbreak of World War I and retired as a captain in 1927. He was an early advocate of air power and mechanized tank warfare. He wrote for London newspapers from 1925 to 1945. His writings on strategy, which emphasized the elements of mobility and surprise, were more influential in Germany than in France or England; his “expanding torrent” theory of attack became the basis for German blitzkrieg warfare in 1939–41. The author of more than 30 books, he was knighted in 1966.

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(born Nov. 21, 1818, near Aurora, N.Y., U.S.—died Dec. 17, 1881, Rochester, N.Y.) U.S. ethnologist and a principal founder of scientific anthropology. Morgan developed a deep interest in the American Indians and in 1846 was eventually adopted by the Seneca. His Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (1871) was a world survey of kinship systems that sought to establish connections between cultures and particularly to establish the Asiatic origin of the American Indians. This work led to a comprehensive theory of sociocultural evolution, set forth in Ancient Society (1877). He claimed that advances in social organization arose primarily from changes in food production and that society had progressed from a hunting-and-gathering stage (“savagery”) to one of settled agriculture (“barbarism”) to modern “civilization.” This theory, with the related theory that society originated in a state of sexual promiscuity and advanced through various forms of family life before culminating in monogamy, is now obsolete. For many years, however, Morgan was the dean of American anthropology, and his pioneering ideas influenced the theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, among others.

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(born Jan. 20, 1732, Stratford, Va.—died June 19, 1794, Chantilly, Va., U.S.) U.S. statesman. As a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses (1758–75), he opposed the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts. He helped initiate the Committees of Correspondence and was active in the First and Second Continental Congress. On June 7, 1776, he introduced a resolution calling for independence from Britain. Its adoption led to the Declaration of Independence, which he signed, as he did the Articles of Confederation. He again served in Congress from 1784 to 1787, acting as its president in 1784. He opposed ratification of the Constitution of the United States because it lacked a bill of rights. He later served in the first U.S. Senate (1789–92).

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(born Jan. 29, 1756, Prince William county, Va.—died March 25, 1818, Cumberland Island, Ga., U.S.) American army officer and politician. In the American Revolution he rose to cavalry commander (earning the nickname “Light-Horse Harry”) and led victories at Paulus Hook, N.J., and in the South. As governor of Virginia (1791–94), he commanded the army that suppressed the Whiskey Rebellion (1794). In the U.S. House of Representatives (1799–1801), he wrote the resolution eulogizing George Washington as “first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.” After 1800 Lee failed in several land and financial speculations and was twice imprisoned for debt. He was the father of Robert E. Lee.

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(baptized Jan. 5, 1596, Dinton, Wiltshire, Eng.—died Oct. 21, 1662, London) English composer. Lawes, who served at the court of Charles I, became the leading English songwriter of his time; some 435 of his songs survive. His theatrical music includes that to John Milton's masque Comus (1634). William Lawes, his brother, was also a noted composer.

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(born May 1, 1764, Fulneck, Yorkshire, Eng.—died Sept. 3, 1820, New Orleans, La., U.S.) British-U.S. architect and civil engineer. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1795. His first important building was the State Penitentiary in Richmond, Va. In 1798, in Philadelphia, he designed the Bank of Pennsylvania, considered the first U.S. monument of the Greek Revival style. Pres. Thomas Jefferson appointed him surveyor of public buildings. Latrobe inherited the task of completing the U.S. Capitol, and later rebuilt it after its destruction by the British. In Baltimore he designed the country's first cathedral (1818). He was active as an engineer, especially in the design of waterworks. He is widely regarded as having established architecture as a profession in the U.S.

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(born March 7, 1802, London, Eng.—died Oct. 1, 1873, London) British painter and sculptor. He studied with his father, an engraver and writer, and at the Royal Academy. He specialized in animals and developed great skill in depicting animal anatomy; he sometimes humanized his animal subjects to the point of sentimentality or moralizing (e.g., Dignity and Impudence, 1839). He achieved great professional and social success and was a favourite painter of Queen Victoria. He was elected to the Royal Academy in 1831 and knighted in 1850. As a sculptor, he is best known for his bronze lions at the base of Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square (unveiled 1867).

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(born July 25, 1750, Boston, Mass.—died Oct. 25, 1806, Thomaston, Maine, U.S.) American Revolutionary officer. Active in the colonial militia, he joined the Continental Army and was sent by George Washington to transport British artillery captured in the Battle of Ticonderoga. In mid-winter, he oversaw the transport of 120,000 lbs (55,000 kg) of artillery by oxen and horses over snow and ice 300 mi (480 km) to Boston. Promoted to general, he commanded the artillery in the battles of Monmouth and Yorktown, and in 1783 he succeeded Washington as commander of the army. He was secretary of war under the Articles of Confederation from 1785 to 1789 and served as the first U.S. secretary of war from 1789 to 1795.

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(born May 27, 1923, Fürth, Ger.) German-born U.S. political scientist and foreign-policy adviser (1969–76). He immigrated with his family to the U.S. in 1938. He taught at Harvard University, where he directed the Defense Studies Program (1959–69). He was appointed assistant for national security affairs by Pres. Richard Nixon in 1968 and served as head of the National Security Council from 1969 to 1975; he was secretary of state from 1973 to 1977. He developed the policy of détente toward the Soviet Union, which led to the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks agreements. He also initiated the first official U.S. contact with China. Although he at first advocated a hard-line policy on Vietnam, he later negotiated the cease-fire agreement that ended the Vietnam War, for which he shared the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1973 with Le Duc Tho (who refused it). After leaving government service, he became an international consultant, lecturer, and writer.

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(born , May 9, 1882, Sprout Brook, N.Y., U.S.—died Aug. 24, 1967, Honolulu, Hawaii) U.S. industrialist and founder of more than 100 companies, including Kaiser Aluminum, Kaiser Steel, and Kaiser Cement and Gypsum. He undertook his first public-works projects beginning in 1914, eventually building dams in California, levees on the Mississippi River, and highways in Cuba. Between 1931 and 1945 he organized combinations of construction companies to build the Hoover, Bonneville, and Grand Coulee dams and other large public projects. During World War II he ran seven shipyards, making steel in an integrated steel mill and using assembly-line production to build ships in less than five days. He established the first health maintenance organization, the Kaiser plan, for his shipyard employees; it served more than a million people and became a model for later federal programs. In the postwar era he dealt profitably in aluminum, steel, and automobiles.

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(born Dec. 17, 1797, Albany, N.Y., U.S.—died May 13, 1878, Washington, D.C.) U.S. physicist. He aided Samuel F.B. Morse in developing the telegraph. He discovered several important principles of electricity, including self-induction. He observed electromagnetic induction a year before Michael Faraday announced its discovery. He made improvements to electromagnets, discovered the laws on which the transformer is based, investigated electric discharge, and demonstrated that sunspots radiate less heat than the general solar surface. In 1846 he became the first secretary and director of the Smithsonian Institution, where he organized a corps of volunteer weather observers that led to creation of the U.S. Weather Bureau. He was a chief technical adviser to Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War and a primary organizer of the National Academy of Science. In 1893 the standard unit of electrical inductance, the henry, was named in his honour.

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known as Cardinal Newman

(born Feb. 21, 1801, London, Eng.—died Aug. 11, 1890, Birmingham, Warwick) English churchman and man of letters. He attended the University of Oxford, where in 1833 he became the leader of the Oxford Movement, which stressed the Catholic elements in the English religious tradition and sought to reform the Church of England. He was received into the Roman Catholic church in 1845, but he came under suspicion among the more rigorous clergy because of his quasi-liberal spirit. A challenge from Charles Kingsley prompted him to write an eloquent exposition of his spiritual history, the widely admired Apologia pro Vita Sua (1864). The work assured his place in the church, and in 1879 he became a cardinal-deacon. He also wrote theological works, religious poetry, and several hymns, including “Lead, Kindly Light.”

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(born April 15, 1843, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died Feb. 28, 1916, London, Eng.) U.S.-British novelist. Born to a distinguished family, the brother of William James, he was privately educated. He traveled frequently to Europe from childhood on; after 1876 he lived primarily in England. His fundamental theme was to be the innocence and exuberance of the New World in conflict with the corruption and wisdom of the Old. Daisy Miller (1879) won him international renown; it was followed by The Europeans (1879), Washington Square (1880), and The Portrait of a Lady (1881). In The Bostonians (1886) and The Princess Casamassima (1886), his subjects were social reformers and revolutionaries. In The Spoils of Poynton (1897), What Maisie Knew (1897), and The Turn of the Screw (1898), he made use of complex moral and psychological ambiguity. The Wings of the Dove (1902), The Ambassadors (1903), and The Golden Bowl (1904) were his great final novels. His intense concern with the novel as an art form is reflected in the essay “The Art of Fiction” (1884), his prefaces to the volumes of his collected works, and his many literary essays. Perhaps his chief technical innovation was his strong focus on the individual consciousness of his central characters, which reflected his sense of the decline of public and collective values in his time.

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(born , Jan. 10, 1847, Frankfurt am Main—died Sept. 25, 1920, New York, N.Y., U.S.) German-born U.S. financier and philanthropist. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1865 and in 1875 joined the investment-banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. He succeeded his father-in-law as head of the firm in 1885 and became one of the leading railroad bankers in the U.S. He played a pivotal role in the reorganization of several transcontinental lines, notably the Union Pacific Railroad and the Northern Pacific Railway. During the Russo-Japanese War he sold Japanese bonds in the U.S., for which he was decorated by the emperor of Japan. His extensive philanthropies included large contributions to Barnard College and the Jewish Theological Seminary.

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(born April 4, 1843, Keesville, N.Y., U.S.—died June 30, 1942, New York, N.Y.) U.S. photographer. As a boy, he worked for a photographic studio in Troy, N.Y. After the American Civil War he went west and opened a studio in Omaha. He was the official photographer for the U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (1870–78), and his photographs were instrumental in the establishment of Yellowstone National Park.

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orig. John Henry Brodribb

(born Feb. 6, 1838, Keinton Mandeville, Somerset, Eng.—died Oct. 13, 1905, Bradford, Yorkshire) British actor. He toured for 10 years with a stock company before making his London debut in 1866. With his success in The Bells (1871), he became a leading actor in H.L. Bateman's company (1871–77). As actor-manager of the Lyceum Theatre (from 1878), he made it London's most successful theatre. He formed a celebrated acting partnership with Ellen Terry that lasted until the company dissolved in 1902. They were noted for their Shakespearean roles, and their theatrical qualities complemented each other: he the brooding introvert, she the spontaneous charmer.

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(born 1611, Attenborough, Nottinghamshire, Eng.—died Nov. 28, 1651, Limerick, County Limerick, Ire.) English politician, leader of the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil Wars. Joining the Parliamentary army at the outbreak of war, he was involved in many victories. He was elected to Parliament in 1645 and married Oliver Cromwell's daughter in 1646. In 1647 he proposed a scheme for a constitutional monarchy; after its rejection by Charles I, Ireton provided the ideological foundations for the assault on the monarchy. He helped bring Charles to trial and was one of the signers of his death warrant. As lord deputy of Ireland and commander in chief (1650), he fought against the Roman Catholic rebels and died after the siege of Limerick.

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(born March 7, 1842, London, Eng.—died Nov. 22, 1921, London) British Marxist political leader. Educated at the University of Cambridge, he worked as a journalist before founding the socialist Democratic Federation, and in England for All (1881), the first English socialist book in almost 50 years, he expounded the ideas of Karl Marx. He steered many British socialists toward Marxism, but Friedrich Engels, who disliked Hyndman, encouraged many to break away and form the Socialist League. During World War I Hyndman took a patriotic and pro-French line, causing his ouster from the Socialist Party, whereupon he formed the National Socialist Party (1916), later renamed the Social Democratic Federation.

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(born May 4, 1825, Ealing, Middlesex, Eng.—died June 29, 1895, Eastbourne, Sussex) British biologist. The son of a schoolmaster, he earned a medical degree. After working as a surgeon on a surveying expedition in the South Pacific (1846–50), during which he carried out extensive studies of marine organisms, he taught for many years at the Royal School of Mines in London (1854–85). In the 1850s he established his reputation with his important papers on animal individuality, certain mollusks, the methods of paleontology, the methods and principles of science and science education, the structure and functions of nerves, and the vertebrate skull. He was one of the earliest and strongest supporters of Darwinism; his 1860 debate with Bishop Samuel Wilberforce gained widespread attention. In the 1860s Huxley did valuable work in paleontology and classification, especially classification of birds. Later in life he turned to theology; he is said to have coined the word agnostic to describe his views. Few scientists have been as influential over such a wide field of scientific development and as effective in the total movement of thought and action within their own generation.

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(born circa 1565, England—died after June 22, 1611, in or near Hudson Bay?) English navigator and explorer. Sailing for the Muscovy Company of London in search of the Northeast Passage to the Far East, he was blocked by ice fields. In 1609 he set out in the Half Moon to find a similar passage for the Dutch East India Company, but, when stopped by storms, he instead sought the Northwest Passage, which he had recently heard about from other explorers, and cruised along the Atlantic coast and up the Hudson River. In 1610 he set out again for America, this time on behalf of the Muscovy Company and the English East India Company, and discovered Hudson Bay. Finding no outlet to the Pacific and in the close confinement of an Arctic winter, Hudson's crew fell to quarreling, and on the homeward voyage they mutinied and set Hudson adrift in a small boat, never to be found. His discoveries formed the basis for Dutch colonization of the Hudson River and for English claims to much of Canada.

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(born May 29, 1736, Studley, Va.—died June 6, 1799, Red Hill, near Brookneal, Va., U.S.) American Revolutionary leader. Admitted to the bar in 1760, he soon built a large and profitable practice. His skill as an orator was displayed in the Parson's Cause trial (1763). Elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1765, he opposed the Stamp Act; during the next decade he became a leader of the radical opposition to British rule. He was a founding member of the Committees of Correspondence and a delegate to the Continental Congress. At a Virginia assembly in 1775 he delivered his famous speech in defense of liberty, which concluded with the words “Give me liberty or give me death.” He helped draft the state's first constitution in 1776 and was elected governor the same year (1776–79, 1784–86). As wartime governor, he ably supported Gen. George Washington; during his second term, he authorized the expedition of George Rogers Clark to invade the Illinois country. In 1788 he opposed ratification of the U.S. Constitution, which he felt did not sufficiently secure the rights of states and individuals. He was later instrumental in the adoption of the Bill of Rights.

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(born Dec. 17, 1797, Albany, N.Y., U.S.—died May 13, 1878, Washington, D.C.) U.S. physicist. He aided Samuel F.B. Morse in developing the telegraph. He discovered several important principles of electricity, including self-induction. He observed electromagnetic induction a year before Michael Faraday announced its discovery. He made improvements to electromagnets, discovered the laws on which the transformer is based, investigated electric discharge, and demonstrated that sunspots radiate less heat than the general solar surface. In 1846 he became the first secretary and director of the Smithsonian Institution, where he organized a corps of volunteer weather observers that led to creation of the U.S. Weather Bureau. He was a chief technical adviser to Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War and a primary organizer of the National Academy of Science. In 1893 the standard unit of electrical inductance, the henry, was named in his honour.

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Promontory, at the southern entrance to Chesapeake Bay, southeastern Virginia, U.S. Located in Virginia Beach city, it is opposite Cape Charles, to which it is connected by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel. It is the site of Cape Henry Memorial, which marks the 1607 landing of the first permanent English settlers in America. The memorial, part of Colonial National Historical Park, includes the Old Lighthouse, the first in the U.S. (1792). The nearby New Lighthouse (1881) has one of the world's most powerful lights, visible offshore for 20 mi (32 km).

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Portuguese Henrique o Navegador orig. Henrique, infante (prince) de Portugal, duque (duke) de Viseu, senhor (lord) da Covilha

(born March 4, 1394, Porto, Port.—died Nov. 13, 1460, Vila do Infante, near Sagres) Portuguese prince and patron of explorers. He helped his father, John I, capture the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415 and served as governor of Ceuta and later of the Portuguese province of Algarve. He established his own court at Sagres and sponsored voyages of discovery in the Madeira Islands and along the western coast of Africa. As grand master of the Order of Christ, he gained funds for backing voyages aimed at the conversion of pagans. His patronage led to the development of the Portuguese caravel and improved navigational instruments and the advancement of cartography.

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(born Oct. 6, 1573, Cowdray, Sussex, Eng.—died Nov. 10, 1624, Bergen op Zoom, Neth.) English nobleman, patron of William Shakespeare. Grandson of the 1st earl of Southampton, he became a favourite of Elizabeth I. He was a liberal patron of writers, including Thomas Nashe. Shakespeare dedicated two long poems to him (1593, 1594), and he has often been identified as the noble youth addressed in most of Shakespeare's sonnets. He accompanied the 2nd earl of Essex on expeditions to Cádiz and the Azores (1596, 1597). For supporting the Essex rebellion (1601), he was imprisoned (1601–03); following James I's accession, he regained his place at court. He became a privy councillor in 1619, but he lost favour by opposing the 1st duke of Buckingham. He and his son volunteered to fight for the United Provinces against Spain, but, soon after landing in the Netherlands, they both died of fever.

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orig. Heinrich Wilhelm Stiegel

(born May 13, 1729, near Cologne—died Jan. 10, 1785, Charming Forge, Pa., U.S.) German-born U.S. ironmaster and glassmaker. After arriving in Philadelphia in 1750, he quickly became a prosperous ironmaster. In 1762 he bought a huge tract of land in Lancaster County and built the town of Manheim, where he established American Flint Glassworks; there he imported Venetian, German, and English glassworkers to make utilitarian vessels and high-quality blue, purple, green, and clear tableware. He owned three mansions, where his comings and goings were announced by a cannon salute and band music, but his lavish style and adverse economic conditions eventually bankrupted him.

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(born March 10, 1858, Tonbridge, Kent, Eng.—died Dec. 26, 1933, Hinton St. George, Somerset) English lexicographer and philologist. With his brother, Francis George Fowler (d. 1918), he wrote The King's English (1906) and The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (1911). H.W. Fowler's major work, planned with his brother, was A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926), an alphabetical listing of points of grammar, syntax, style, pronunciation, and punctuation, whose depth, style, and humour have made it a classic.

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(born June 24, 1813, Litchfield, Conn., U.S.—died March 8, 1887, Brooklyn, N.Y.) U.S. Congregational clergyman. The son of a minister, he was the brother of Harriet Beecher Stowe and Catharine Esther Beecher. After graduating from Amherst College and later studying at Lane Theological Seminary, he served as pastor to congregations in Indiana. In 1847 he was called to Plymouth Church in Brooklyn. A famous orator and one of the most influential preachers of his time, he opposed slavery and supported women's suffrage, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, and scientific biblical criticism. He gained unfavourable publicity in 1874 when he was put on trial for adultery, but he was acquitted and returned to his church.

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(born Jan. 16, 1815, Westernville, N.Y., U.S.—died Jan. 9, 1872, Louisville, Ky.) Union officer during the American Civil War. A graduate of West Point, he was commissioned in the engineers and sent on a tour of military facilities in Europe (1844), after which he wrote a textbook on war (1846) that became widely used. In 1861 he became supreme commander of Union forces in the western theatre and hurriedly organized large volunteer armies, though the military successes of the following spring were largely due to subordinate generals such as Ulysses S. Grant and John Pope. In 1862 he was appointed general in chief of Union forces, but subsequent reverses in Virginia and conflict with his subordinates and with the secretary of war Edwin M. Stanton resulted in his replacement by Grant in 1864.

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(born Feb. 27, 1807, Portland, Mass., U.S.—died March 24, 1882, Cambridge, Mass.) U.S. poet. Longfellow graduated from Bowdoin College and traveled in Europe before joining the modern-language faculties of Bowdoin (1829–35) and Harvard (1836–54). His Voices of the Night (1839), containing “The Psalm of Life” and “The Light of the Stars,” first won him popularity. Ballads and Other Poems (1841), including “The Wreck of the Hesperus” and “The Village Blacksmith,” swept the nation, as did his long poem Evangeline (1847). With Hiawatha (1855), The Courtship of Miles Standish (1858), and Tales of a Wayside Inn (1863), including “Paul Revere's Ride,” he became the best-loved American poet of the 19th century. He later translated Dante's Divine Comedy (1867) and published his intended masterpiece, Christus, a trilogy on Christianity (1872). The hallmarks of his verse are gentleness, simplicity, and an idealized vision of the world.

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orig. Ferdinand Heinrich Gustav Hilgard

(born April 10, 1835, Speyer, Bavaria—died Nov. 12, 1900, Dobbs Ferry, N.Y., U.S.) German-born U.S. journalist and financier. In 1853 he immigrated to the U.S., where he first found work with German-language newspapers. During the Civil War he was a correspondent for two New York City newspapers. In 1881 he purchased the Nation magazine and the New York Evening Post. In the 1870s he organized several railroads in Oregon, and from 1881 to 1884 he was president of the Northern Pacific, a transcontinental railroad completed under his management despite large cost overruns; he later served as chairman of the board (1888–93). He bought two Edison companies and created the Edison General Electric Co. in 1889, serving as president until its reorganization in 1892 as the General Electric Co.

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(born April 17, 1622, Llansantffraed, Breconshire, Wales—died April 23, 1695, Llansantffraed) Anglo-Welsh poet and mystic. Vaughan studied law but from the 1650s practiced medicine. After writing two volumes of secular poems, he read the religious poet George Herbert and gave up “idle verse.” He is chiefly remembered for the spiritual vision or imagination evident in his fresh and convincing religious verse and is considered one of the major practitioners of Metaphysical poetry. Works that reveal the depth of his religious convictions include Silex Scintillans (1650, enlarged 1655; “The Glittering Flint”) and the prose Mount of Olives (1652). He also translated short moral and religious works and two medical works.

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(born Dec. 26, 1891, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died June 7, 1980, Pacific Palisades, Calif.) U.S. writer and perennial bohemian. Miller wrote about his Brooklyn, N.Y., childhood in Black Spring (1936). Tropic of Cancer (1934), a monologue about his life as an impoverished expatriate in Paris, and Tropic of Capricorn (1939), which draws on his earlier New York phase, were banned as obscene in the U.S. and Britain until the 1960s. The Air-Conditioned Nightmare (1945) is a critical account of a tour of the U.S. He settled on the California coast, where he became the centre of a colony of admirers and wrote his Rosy Crucifixion trilogy, Sexus, Plexus, and Nexus (U.S. ed., 1965).

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(born June 28, 1491, Greenwich, near London, Eng.—died Jan. 28, 1547, London) King of England (1509–47). Son of Henry VII, Henry married his brother's widow, Catherine of Aragon (the mother of Mary I), soon after his accession in 1509. His first chief minister, Thomas Cardinal Wolsey, exercised nearly complete control over policy in 1515–27. In 1527 Henry pursued a divorce from Catherine to marry Anne Boleyn, but Pope Clement VII denied him an annulment. Wolsey, unable to help Henry, was ousted. The new minister, Thomas Cromwell, in 1532 initiated a revolution when he decided that the English church should separate from Rome, allowing Henry to marry Anne in 1533. A new archbishop, Thomas Cranmer, declared the first marriage annulled. A daughter, Elizabeth I, was born to Anne soon after. Becoming head of the Church of England represented Henry's major achievement, but it had wide-ranging consequences. Henry, once profoundly devoted to the papacy and rewarded with the h1 Defender of the Faith, was excommunicated, and he was obliged to settle the nature of the newly independent church. In the 1530s his power was greatly enlarged, especially by transferring to the crown the wealth of the monasteries and by new clerical taxes, but his earlier reputation as a man of learning became buried under his enduring fame as a man of blood. Many, including St. Thomas More, were killed because they refused to accept the new order. The king grew tired of Anne, and in 1536 she was executed for adultery. He immediately married Jane Seymour, who bore him a son, Edward VI, but died in childbirth. Three years later, at Cromwell's instigation, he married Anne of Cleves, but he hated her and demanded a quick divorce; he had Cromwell beheaded in 1540. By now Henry was becoming paranoid, as well as enormously fat and unhealthy. In 1540 he married Catherine Howard, but he had her beheaded for adultery in 1542. In 1542 he waged a financially ruinous war against Scotland. In 1543 he married Catherine Parr, who survived him. He was succeeded on his death by his son, Edward.

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German Heinrich

(born circa 1269/74, Valenciennes, Hainaut—died Aug. 24, 1313, Buonconvento, near Siena, Italy) Count of Luxembourg (as Henry IV), German king (1308–13), and Holy Roman Emperor (1312–13). The first German king of the House of Luxembourg, he strengthened the position of his family by obtaining the throne of Bohemia for his son. He became ruler of Lombardy (1311) but faced conflicts between Guelphs and Ghibellines. Though crowned emperor at Rome, he was unable to subdue Florence or Naples, and he failed in his attempt to bind Italy firmly to the empire.

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German Heinrich

(born autumn 1165, Nijmegen, Neth.—died Sept. 28, 1197, Messina, Italy) German king (1169–97) and Holy Roman emperor (1191–97) of the Hohenstaufen dynasty who acquired the kingdom of Sicily by marriage. Crowned king in 1169, Henry took over government of the Holy Roman Empire when his father, Frederick I Barbarossa, embarked on a Crusade to the Holy Land in 1189. Soon after his coronation he faced revolts by Henry the Lion in Germany and Tancred in Sicily, but he succeeded in making peace in 1194. His efforts to make the imperial crown hereditary were unsuccessful, but his son Frederick II would become emperor after the death of Henry's eventual successor, the Welf ruler, Otto IV.

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(born Sept. 16?, 1387, Monmouth, Monmouthshire, Wales—died Aug. 31, 1422, Bois de Vincennes, Fr.) King of England (1413–22) of the House of Lancaster. The eldest son of Henry IV, he fought Welsh rebels (1403–08). As king he harshly suppressed a Lollard uprising (1414) and a Yorkist conspiracy (1415). He claimed extensive lands in France and launched an invasion (1415), and his stunning victory at the Battle of Agincourt made England one of the greatest powers in Europe. His continuing victories forced the French to sign the Treaty of Troyes (1420), in which Henry was named heir to the French throne and regent of France. He married Catherine, daughter of the French king, but died of camp fever before he could return home.

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(born Dec. 7, 1545, Temple Newsom, Yorkshire, Eng.—died Feb. 9/10, 1567, Edinburgh, Scot.) English nobleman, second husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, and father of James I. Son of Matthew Stewart, earl of Lennox (1516–71), a pretender to the Scottish throne, Henry wed his cousin Mary in 1565 despite the opposition of Elizabeth I and Scottish Protestants. It became evident, even to Mary, that superficial charm was his only positive attribute. After he played a role in the murder of Mary's secretary, David Riccio, he was himself murdered at age 21 at the instigation of James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell (1535–78), whom Mary soon married.

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(born May 31, 1838, Skipton, Yorkshire, Eng.—died Aug. 29, 1900, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire) British philosopher. Educated at Cambridge, he remained there as a fellow (from 1859) and professor (from 1883). His Methods of Ethics (1874) is considered by some the most significant 19th-century ethical work in English. Drawing on the utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill and the categorical imperative of Immanuel Kant, he proposed a system of “universalistic hedonism” that would reconcile the apparent conflict between the pleasure of self and the pleasure of others. His other writings include Principles of Political Economy (1883) and Elements of Politics (1891). He also cofounded the Society for Psychical Research (1882) and helped found Cambridge's first women's college.

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(born March 28, 1793, Albany county, N.Y., U.S.—died Dec. 10, 1864, Washington, D.C.) U.S. explorer and ethnologist. He served as topographer on an expedition to the Lake Superior region (1820), then married a woman who was part Ojibwa and became an Indian agent. In 1832 he discovered the source of the Mississippi River at Lake Itaska, Minn. A treaty he concluded with the Ojibwa in 1836 ceded much of their land in northern Michigan to the U.S. Schoolcraft's six-volume Indian Tribes of the United States (1851–57) was a pioneering, though flawed, work.

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(born April 3, 1898, Dengzhou, Shandong province, China—died Feb. 28, 1967, Phoenix, Ariz., U.S.) U.S. magazine publisher. Luce was born to U.S. missionary parents. He graduated from Yale University in 1920. While at Yale he had met Briton Hadden, with whom he launched Time in 1923. He added the business magazine Fortune in 1929 and Life magazine in 1936. Among other Luce magazines were House & Home, established in 1952, and Sports Illustrated, launched in 1954. His publications, founded as means of educating what Luce considered a poorly informed U.S. public, had many imitators, and Luce became one of the most powerful figures in the history of U.S. journalism. Both he and his wife, Clare Boothe Luce, had a major influence on the Republican Party and on national affairs.

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(born circa 1659, London, Eng.—died Nov. 21, 1695, London) British composer. Little is known of his origins, but he was in the Chapel Royal choir from boyhood, and he probably studied with Pelham Humfrey (1647–74) and John Blow (1649–1708). His first known composition was written at age eight. When his voice changed, he assisted in keeping the royal instruments in repair and tuning the Westminster Abbey organ. He became organist there in 1679 and at the Chapel Royal in 1682. He wrote music in a number of genres. His opera Dido and Aeneas (1689) is notable for achieving a high degree of dramatic intensity within a narrow framework. This he followed with the “semi-operas” King Arthur (1691), The Fairy Queen (1692), and The Indian Queen (1695). He also wrote much incidental music, some 250 songs, 12 fantasias for viol consort, and many anthems and services. He is regarded as the greatest English composer after William Byrd and before the 20th century.

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(born 1696—died March 6, 1754, London, Eng.) British prime minister (1743–54). He was elected to Parliament in 1717 and, as a supporter of Robert Walpole, became secretary for war (1724) and paymaster of the forces (1730). He succeeded Walpole as prime minister and chancellor of the Exchequer in 1743 and led a stable Whig ministry with parliamentary assistance from his brother, Thomas Pelham-Holles, duke of Newcastle. Pelham resisted attempts to prolong the War of the Austrian Succession and signed the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). After the war, he introduced financial reforms, including lower military expenditures, a reduced land tax, and a consolidation of the national debt.

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(born June 21, 1859, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.—died May 25, 1937, Paris, France) U.S. painter. He studied under Thomas Eakins at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, where he was the only black student. He moved to Paris in 1891, and by 1894 his work was being exhibited at the annual Salons, where he was awarded honourable mention in 1896 for Daniel in the Lions' Den and won a medal in 1897 for his Raising of Lazarus. He gained international acclaim and many awards for his landscapes and his treatments of biblical themes. He was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1923, and in 1927 he became the first African American granted full membership in the National Academy of Design.

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(born , Jan. 2, 1830, Hopewell, N.Y., U.S.—died May 20, 1913, West Palm Beach, Fla.) U.S. financier. He initially worked as a grain merchant. His friendship with John D. Rockefeller led to their establishing a firm that in 1870 became the Standard Oil Co. Flagler served as a director of Standard Oil of New Jersey until 1911. He was hugely influential in the development of Florida as a vacation centre, involving himself in such enterprises as extending the Florida East Coast Railway, dredging Miami's harbour, and the construction of a chain of luxury hotels.

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(born May 11, 1891, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died Feb. 6, 1967, Poughkeepsie, N.Y.) U.S. public official. He was editor of American Agriculturist (1922–33) and a close friend of Franklin D. Roosevelt. As secretary of the treasury in Roosevelt's cabinet (1934–45), he was responsible for financing the programs of the New Deal and the enormous military expenditures of World War II. Over $370 billion was spent during the period, three times more money than was spent by the 50 previous secretaries of the treasury. He resigned after Roosevelt's death and retired to his farm.

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(born July 30, 1898, Castleford, Eng.—died Aug. 31, 1986, Much Hadham) English sculptor and graphic artist. The son of a coal miner, he was enabled to study at the Royal College of Art by a rehabilitation grant after being wounded in World War I. His early works were strongly influenced by the Mayan sculpture he saw in a Paris museum. From circa 1931 on he experimented with abstract art, combining abstract shapes with the human figure and at times leaving the human figure behind altogether. When materials grew scarce during World War II, he concentrated on drawings of Londoners sheltering from bombs in Underground stations. Commissions for a Madonna and Child and a family group turned his style from abstraction to the more humanistic approach that became the basis of his international reputation. He returned to experimentation in the 1950s with angular, pierced standing figures in bronze. Much of his work is monumental, and he is particularly well known for a series of reclining nudes. Among his major commissions were sculptures for UNESCO's Paris headquarters (1957–58), Lincoln Center (1963–65), and the National Gallery of Art (1978).

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(born March 7, 1842, London, Eng.—died Nov. 22, 1921, London) British Marxist political leader. Educated at the University of Cambridge, he worked as a journalist before founding the socialist Democratic Federation, and in England for All (1881), the first English socialist book in almost 50 years, he expounded the ideas of Karl Marx. He steered many British socialists toward Marxism, but Friedrich Engels, who disliked Hyndman, encouraged many to break away and form the Socialist League. During World War I Hyndman took a patriotic and pro-French line, causing his ouster from the Socialist Party, whereupon he formed the National Socialist Party (1916), later renamed the Social Democratic Federation.

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(born Sept. 12, 1880, Baltimore, Md., U.S.—died Jan. 29, 1956, Baltimore) U.S. controversialist, humorous journalist, and critic. Mencken worked on the staff of the Baltimore Sun for much of his life. With George Jean Nathan (1882–1958), he coedited The Smart Set (1914–23) and cofounded and edited (1924–33) the American Mercury, both important literary magazines. Probably the most influential U.S. literary critic in the 1920s, he often used criticism to jeer at the nation's social and cultural weaknesses. Prejudices (1919–27) collects many of his reviews and essays. In The American Language (1919; supplements 1945, 1948) he brought together American expressions and idioms; by the time of his death he was perhaps the leading authority on the language of the U.S.

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(born Sept. 16, 1950, Keyser, W.Va., U.S.) U.S. critic and scholar. Gates attended Yale University and the University of Cambridge. He has chaired Harvard University's department of Afro-American Studies for many years. In such works as Figures in Black (1987) and The Signifying Monkey (1988) he has used the term signifyin' to represent a practice that can link African and African American literary histories; his other books include Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Black Man (1998). He has edited many anthologies, including Reading Black, Reading Feminist (1990) and the Norton Anthology of African American Writers (1997), and has restored and edited many lost works by black writers. He writes frequently to a general public, notably in The New Yorker, and he wrote the television series Wonders of the African World (1999).

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byname of Henry Louis Aaron

(born Feb. 5, 1934, Mobile, Ala., U.S.) U.S. baseball player, one of the greatest in professional baseball. After playing briefly in the Negro leagues and then in the minor leagues, Aaron was moved up to the majors as an outfielder with the Milwaukee Braves in 1954. By the time the Braves moved to Atlanta, Ga., in 1965, Aaron had hit 398 home runs; in 1974 he hit his 715th, breaking Babe Ruth's record. He played his final two seasons (1975–76) with the Milwaukee Brewers. Aaron's records for extra-base hits (1,477) and runs batted in (2,297) remain unbroken, and only Ty Cobb and Pete Rose exceed him in career hits (3,771). Aaron's home run record (755) was broken by Barry Bonds in 2007. Aaron is renowned as one of the greatest hitters of all time.

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(born Sept. 21, 1867, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died Oct. 20, 1950, Huntington, N.Y.) U.S. statesman. A lawyer, he served as U.S. secretary of war (1911–13), governor of the Philippines (1927–29), and U.S. secretary of state (1929–33). After the Japanese occupation of Manchuria (1931), he sent to Japan a diplomatic note, the contents of which became known as the Stimson Doctrine, refusing to recognize territorial changes and reaffirming U.S. treaty rights. As secretary of war (1940–45), he oversaw the expansion and training of U.S. forces in World War II. He was the chief adviser on atomic policy to Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman and recommended use of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

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(born Jan. 29, 1756, Prince William county, Va.—died March 25, 1818, Cumberland Island, Ga., U.S.) American army officer and politician. In the American Revolution he rose to cavalry commander (earning the nickname “Light-Horse Harry”) and led victories at Paulus Hook, N.J., and in the South. As governor of Virginia (1791–94), he commanded the army that suppressed the Whiskey Rebellion (1794). In the U.S. House of Representatives (1799–1801), he wrote the resolution eulogizing George Washington as “first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.” After 1800 Lee failed in several land and financial speculations and was twice imprisoned for debt. He was the father of Robert E. Lee.

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(baptized Jan. 5, 1596, Dinton, Wiltshire, Eng.—died Oct. 21, 1662, London) English composer. Lawes, who served at the court of Charles I, became the leading English songwriter of his time; some 435 of his songs survive. His theatrical music includes that to John Milton's masque Comus (1634). William Lawes, his brother, was also a noted composer.

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(born July 25, 1750, Boston, Mass.—died Oct. 25, 1806, Thomaston, Maine, U.S.) American Revolutionary officer. Active in the colonial militia, he joined the Continental Army and was sent by George Washington to transport British artillery captured in the Battle of Ticonderoga. In mid-winter, he oversaw the transport of 120,000 lbs (55,000 kg) of artillery by oxen and horses over snow and ice 300 mi (480 km) to Boston. Promoted to general, he commanded the artillery in the battles of Monmouth and Yorktown, and in 1783 he succeeded Washington as commander of the army. He was secretary of war under the Articles of Confederation from 1785 to 1789 and served as the first U.S. secretary of war from 1789 to 1795.

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(born , May 9, 1882, Sprout Brook, N.Y., U.S.—died Aug. 24, 1967, Honolulu, Hawaii) U.S. industrialist and founder of more than 100 companies, including Kaiser Aluminum, Kaiser Steel, and Kaiser Cement and Gypsum. He undertook his first public-works projects beginning in 1914, eventually building dams in California, levees on the Mississippi River, and highways in Cuba. Between 1931 and 1945 he organized combinations of construction companies to build the Hoover, Bonneville, and Grand Coulee dams and other large public projects. During World War II he ran seven shipyards, making steel in an integrated steel mill and using assembly-line production to build ships in less than five days. He established the first health maintenance organization, the Kaiser plan, for his shipyard employees; it served more than a million people and became a model for later federal programs. In the postwar era he dealt profitably in aluminum, steel, and automobiles.

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(born May 16, 1905, Grand Island, Neb., U.S.—died Aug. 12, 1982, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. actor. He achieved success on Broadway in The Farmer Takes a Wife (1934), which led him to Hollywood for the film version (1935). He portrayed thoughtful men of integrity in films such as Young Mr. Lincoln (1939), The Grapes of Wrath (1940), and The Ox-Bow Incident (1943). He also made comedies such as The Lady Eve (1941) and The Male Animal (1942). He returned to the stage in Mister Roberts (1948, Tony Award; film, 1955). His last film, On Golden Pond (1981, Academy Award), also starred his daughter Jane Fonda. His son, Peter (b. 1939), also achieved fame as a screen actor.

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(born April 15, 1843, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died Feb. 28, 1916, London, Eng.) U.S.-British novelist. Born to a distinguished family, the brother of William James, he was privately educated. He traveled frequently to Europe from childhood on; after 1876 he lived primarily in England. His fundamental theme was to be the innocence and exuberance of the New World in conflict with the corruption and wisdom of the Old. Daisy Miller (1879) won him international renown; it was followed by The Europeans (1879), Washington Square (1880), and The Portrait of a Lady (1881). In The Bostonians (1886) and The Princess Casamassima (1886), his subjects were social reformers and revolutionaries. In The Spoils of Poynton (1897), What Maisie Knew (1897), and The Turn of the Screw (1898), he made use of complex moral and psychological ambiguity. The Wings of the Dove (1902), The Ambassadors (1903), and The Golden Bowl (1904) were his great final novels. His intense concern with the novel as an art form is reflected in the essay “The Art of Fiction” (1884), his prefaces to the volumes of his collected works, and his many literary essays. Perhaps his chief technical innovation was his strong focus on the individual consciousness of his central characters, which reflected his sense of the decline of public and collective values in his time.

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(born 1611, Attenborough, Nottinghamshire, Eng.—died Nov. 28, 1651, Limerick, County Limerick, Ire.) English politician, leader of the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil Wars. Joining the Parliamentary army at the outbreak of war, he was involved in many victories. He was elected to Parliament in 1645 and married Oliver Cromwell's daughter in 1646. In 1647 he proposed a scheme for a constitutional monarchy; after its rejection by Charles I, Ireton provided the ideological foundations for the assault on the monarchy. He helped bring Charles to trial and was one of the signers of his death warrant. As lord deputy of Ireland and commander in chief (1650), he fought against the Roman Catholic rebels and died after the siege of Limerick.

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German Heinrich

(born Nov. 11, 1050, Goslar?, Saxony—died Aug. 7, 1106, Liège, Lorraine) Duke of Bavaria (1055–61), German king (1054–1106), and emperor (1084–1105/6). He succeeded to the German throne at age six; his pious and unworldly mother was regent until 1062, and Henry gained control of the government upon reaching his majority in 1065. His reassertion of royal rights provoked rebellion in Saxony (1073–75). He engaged in a long struggle with Pope Gregory VII over the issues of obedience to papal commands and lay investiture (see Investiture Controversy). Gregory excommunicated him and absolved his subjects of their oaths of loyalty. Seeking absolution, Henry was forced to cross the Alps in winter and, according to tradition, stand barefoot in the snow three days before the castle at Canossa, where the pope was staying, before the latter would rescind his order. The German princes deserted Henry (1077) and elected Rudolf I as king. In 1080 Gregory excommunicated Henry again and recognized Rudolf. Henry responded by conquering Rome (1084) and installing the antipope Clement III. In his last years his sons Conrad and Henry led rebellions against his rule.

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German Heinrich

(born Oct. 28, 1017—died Oct. 5, 1056, Pfalz Bodfeld, near Goslar, Saxony) Duke of Bavaria (as Henry VI, 1027–41), duke of Swabia (as Henry I, 1038–45), German king (1039–56), and emperor (1046–56). He gained sovereignty over Bohemia and Moravia and arranged the election of Pope Clement II, who crowned him emperor. The last emperor to dominate the papacy, Henry appointed three more popes in succeeding years. He championed the church reform advocated by the monasteries of Cluny and Gorze. He was nearly deposed in a revolt (1054–55), and in his later years his influence faltered in northeastern Germany, Hungary, southern Italy, and Lorraine.

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or St. Henry German Heinrich

(born May 6, 973, Albach?, Bavaria—died July 13, 1024, near Göttingen, Saxony; canonized 1146; feast day July 13) Duke of Bavaria (as Henry IV, 995–1005), German king (1002–24), and emperor (1014–24), the last of the Saxon dynasty. He led a series of military campaigns against Poland before making peace in 1018. He asserted German authority in northern Italy and was crowned emperor by Pope Benedict VIII on Feb. 14, 1014. To protect the papacy he fought Greeks and Lombards in Italy (1021). He fostered cooperation between church and state and established the German bishops as secular rulers as well as ecclesiastical princes and established a reputation for religious piety.

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known as Henry Beauclerc (French: “Good Scholar”)

(born 1069—died Dec. 1, 1135, Lyons-la-Forêt, Normandy) King of England (1100–35) and ruler of Normandy (1106–35). The youngest son of William I, he became king on the death of William II. His eldest brother, Robert Curthose (Robert II), returned from the First Crusade to claim the English throne in 1101; Henry placated him by giving him Normandy, but Robert ruled it badly, and in 1106 Henry seized Normandy and imprisoned his brother. Henry quarreled with Anselm of Canterbury over the issue of investiture (see Investiture Controversy), but they were reconciled in 1107. He maintained control of Normandy, despite attacks by Robert's son, and named his daughter Matilda his heir.

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(born circa 1565, England—died after June 22, 1611, in or near Hudson Bay?) English navigator and explorer. Sailing for the Muscovy Company of London in search of the Northeast Passage to the Far East, he was blocked by ice fields. In 1609 he set out in the Half Moon to find a similar passage for the Dutch East India Company, but, when stopped by storms, he instead sought the Northwest Passage, which he had recently heard about from other explorers, and cruised along the Atlantic coast and up the Hudson River. In 1610 he set out again for America, this time on behalf of the Muscovy Company and the English East India Company, and discovered Hudson Bay. Finding no outlet to the Pacific and in the close confinement of an Arctic winter, Hudson's crew fell to quarreling, and on the homeward voyage they mutinied and set Hudson adrift in a small boat, never to be found. His discoveries formed the basis for Dutch colonization of the Hudson River and for English claims to much of Canada.

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(born Feb. 25, 1540, Shottesham, Norfolk, Eng.—died June 15, 1614, London) English noble noted for his intrigues in the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. Younger brother of the 4th duke of Norfolk, he was implicated in efforts to free Mary, Queen of Scots. He successfully sought favour with the Scottish king James VI, who, on his accession as James I of England, made Howard a privy councillor (1603) and earl of Northampton (1604). As a judge at the trials of Walter Raleigh (1603) and Guy Fawkes (1605), he pressed for conviction.

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(born Sept. 29, 1838, Priestley Plantation, La., U.S.—died April 27, 1886, Brookline, Mass.) U.S. architect. He studied at Harvard University in Cambridge, Mass., and the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. His designs for Boston's Brattle Square (1870–72) and Trinity (1872–77) churches won him a national reputation. He designed houses, libraries, suburban railroad stations, educational buildings, and commercial and civic structures. Instead of the narrow vertical proportions and Gothic features used by his contemporaries, he favoured horizontal lines, simple silhouettes, and large-scale Romanesque or Byzantine-inspired details. The Crane Memorial Library in Quincy, Mass. (1880–82), with its granite base, clerestory windows, tiled gable roof, and cavernous entrance arch, stands among his finest mature works. His Romanesque style had an integrity seldom achieved by his many imitators, and the functionalism of his designs presaged the work of Louis H. Sullivan.

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(born 1815, New Market, Md., U.S.—died Feb. 13, 1882, Liberia) U.S. clergyman and abolitionist. Born a slave, he escaped in 1824 to New York, where he became a Presbyterian minister. He joined the American Anti-Slavery Society and agitated for emancipation; in a 1843 speech at a national convention of freedmen he called on slaves to revolt and murder their masters. The convention refused to endorse his radicalism, and he gradually turned more toward religion, serving as pastor in a number of Presbyterian pulpits during the next two decades. Late in life he favoured emigration of U.S. blacks to Africa. He was appointed U.S. minister to Liberia in 1881 but died within two months of his arrival in the African nation.

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known as Hap Arnold

(born June 25, 1886, Gladwyne, Pa., U.S.—died Jan. 15, 1950, Sonoma, Calif.) U.S. air force officer. He attended West Point and initially served in the infantry. Volunteering as a flyer, he received instruction from Orville Wright. After World War I, with Billy Mitchell he became an eloquent advocate of an expanded air force. He rose through the ranks of the U.S. Army Air Corps to become its commander in 1938, and he commanded the Army Air Forces worldwide during World War II, overseeing a massive buildup and greatly influencing air bombardment strategy. He was named general of the army in 1944 and, after the National Defense Act of 1947 created an independent Air Force, general of the Air Force.

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orig. Ethel Florence Lindesay Richardson

(born Jan. 3, 1870, Melbourne, Austl.—died March 20, 1946, Fairlight, Sussex, Eng.) Australian-born English novelist. In 1888 she left Australia to study music in Germany, and she spent the rest of her life abroad, settling in England in 1904 with her husband, J.G. Robertson. Maurice Guest (1908), her antiromantic first novel, concerns a music student's disastrous love affair. Her masterpiece, The Fortunes of Richard Mahony, 3 vol. (1917–29), combining description of an Australian immigrant's life and work in the goldfields with a powerful character study, is considered the crowning achievement of modern Australian fiction to that time.

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(born July 3, 1746, Dublin, Ire.—died June 6, 1820, London, Eng.) Irish politician. He entered the Irish Parliament in 1775 and, as a brilliant orator, soon became the leading spokesperson of the Irish nationalist agitation. His movement gained momentum; he forced the British in 1779 to remove restraints on Irish trade and in 1782 to relinquish their right to legislate for Ireland. In 1800 he headed the unsuccessful opposition to the union of England and Ireland. In 1805 he was elected to the English House of Commons, where he fought for Catholic emancipation for his last 15 years.

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(born Sept. 2, 1839, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—died Oct. 29, 1897, New York, N.Y.) U.S. land reformer and economist. He left school before age 14 to work as a clerk and then at sea. In 1858 George went to California, where he worked for newspapers (briefly founding his own) and took part in Democratic party politics. In 1879 he published Progress and Poverty, in which he proposed that the state fully tax all economic rent—the income from the use of the bare land, but not from improvements—and abolish all other taxes. George believed that the government's annual income from this “single tax” would be so large that there would be a surplus for expansion of public works.

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orig. Johann Heinrich Füssli

(born Feb. 7, 1741, Zürich, Switz.—died April 16, 1825, London, Eng.) Swiss-born British painter and writer on art. The son of a portrait painter, he trained in theology as well as in art and art history. He left his native Zürich for London in 1764. Encouraged by Sir Joshua Reynolds, he went to Italy in 1770 and stayed for eight years; on his return to England, his works exhibited at the Royal Academy, such as his most famous work, The Nightmare (1781), secured his reputation. His subject matter was chiefly literary, and his images portrayed macabre fantasies and the grotesque. He was elected a full academician in 1790 and taught painting at the academy (1799–1805).

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(born July 30, 1863, Wayne county, Mich., U.S.—died April 7, 1947, Dearborn, Mich.) U.S. industrialist and pioneer automobile manufacturer. Ford worked his way up from a machinist's apprentice (at age 15) to the post of chief engineer at the Edison Company in Detroit. He built his first experimental car in 1896. In 1903, with several partners, he formed the Ford Motor Company. In 1908 he designed the Model T; demand became so great that Ford developed new mass-production methods, including the first moving assembly line in 1913. He developed the Model A in 1928 to replace the Model T, and in 1932 he introduced the V-8 engine. He observed an eight-hour workday and paid his workers far above the average, holding that well-paid labourers become the consumers that industrialists require, but strenuously opposed labour unions. As the first to make car ownership affordable to large numbers of Americans, he exerted a vast and permanent influence on American life. Seealso Ford Foundation.

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(born May 16, 1905, Grand Island, Neb., U.S.—died Aug. 12, 1982, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. actor. He achieved success on Broadway in The Farmer Takes a Wife (1934), which led him to Hollywood for the film version (1935). He portrayed thoughtful men of integrity in films such as Young Mr. Lincoln (1939), The Grapes of Wrath (1940), and The Ox-Bow Incident (1943). He also made comedies such as The Lady Eve (1941) and The Male Animal (1942). He returned to the stage in Mister Roberts (1948, Tony Award; film, 1955). His last film, On Golden Pond (1981, Academy Award), also starred his daughter Jane Fonda. His son, Peter (b. 1939), also achieved fame as a screen actor.

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(born April 22, 1707, Sharpham Park, Somerset, Eng.—died Oct. 8, 1754, Lisbon, Port.) British novelist and playwright. Fielding attended Eton College but left early and lost his family's support. In his 25 plays, all written early, he was essentially a satirist of political corruption; because of his sharp commentary he was eventually effectively banished from the theatre, whereupon he took up the study of law. In 1748 he was appointed a magistrate, in which role he established a new tradition of justice and suppression of crime in London. He probably wrote Shamela (1741), a burlesque of Samuel Richardson's Pamela that he never claimed. In the entertaining and original Joseph Andrews (1742) he also parodies Richardson's novel. Tom Jones (1749), his most popular work, is noted for its great comic gusto, vast gallery of characters, and contrasted scenes of high- and lowlife. The more sober Amelia (1751) anticipates the Victorian domestic novel. In these works he helped develop the English novel as a planned, realistic narrative genre surveying contemporary society.

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known as Cardinal Manning

(born July 15, 1808, Totteridge, Hertfordshire, Eng.—died Jan. 14, 1892, London) British Roman Catholic cardinal. The son of a banker and member of Parliament, he was ordained a priest of the Church of England in 1833. A member of the Oxford movement, he became a Catholic in 1851 and was ordained a priest later that year. He rose rapidly in rank, being appointed archbishop of Westminster in 1865 and cardinal in 1875. He favoured the centralization of authority in the church (Ultramontanism) and supported stronger wording on papal infallibility than was eventually adopted by the First Vatican Council. He established many schools and was highly regarded for his concern for social welfare.

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(born March 11, 1897, Menlo Park, Calif., U.S.—died Dec. 10, 1965, Shady, N.Y.) U.S. avant-garde composer. He began early to experiment with techniques such as tone clusters and direct manipulation of piano strings. Five tours of Europe as composer-pianist (1923–33) expanded his reputation. He coinvented the Rhythmicon, an instrument for producing several conflicting rhythms simultaneously. Immensely prolific, he wrote nearly 1,000 pieces, including 19 completed symphonies, hundreds of piano works, and many ballets. In 1927 he founded the journal New Music. His book New Musical Resources (1930) presented his compositional ideas. He was one of the most important innovators in the history of American music.

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(born Feb. 23, 1751, Hampton, N.H.—died June 6, 1829, Roxbury, Mass., U.S.) U.S. army officer and secretary of war (1801–09). He fought in the American Revolution and later was appointed marshal for the District of Maine (1789–93). He represented Massachusetts in the U.S. House of Representatives (1793–97), was secretary of war under Pres. Thomas Jefferson, and ordered the establishment of Fort Dearborn at “Chikago” in 1803. In the War of 1812, he commanded several failed attempts to invade Canada and was later recalled by Pres. James Madison.

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(born July 12, 1817, Concord, Mass., U.S.—died May 6, 1862, Concord) U.S. thinker, essayist, and naturalist. Thoreau graduated from Harvard University and taught school for several years before leaving his job to become a poet of nature. Back in Concord, he came under the influence of Ralph Waldo Emerson and began to publish pieces in the Transcendentalist magazine The Dial. In the years 1845–47, to demonstrate how satisfying a simple life could be, he lived in a hut beside Concord's Walden Pond; essays recording his daily life were assembled for his masterwork, Walden (1854). His A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (1849) was the only other book he published in his lifetime. He reflected on a night he spent in jail protesting the Mexican-American War in the essay “Civil Disobedience” (1849), which would later influence such figures as Mohandas K. Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. In later years his interest in Transcendentalism waned, and he became a dedicated abolitionist. His many nature writings and records of his wanderings in Canada, Maine, and Cape Cod display the mind of a keen naturalist. After his death his collected writings were published in 20 volumes, and further writings have continued to appear in print.

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(born 1740, Lancaster, Lancashire, Eng.—died 1800, London) British inventor and industrialist. In 1783 he obtained a patent for producing iron bars quickly and economically in a rolling mill with grooved rolls. The following year he patented his puddling process for converting pig iron into wrought iron in a reverberatory furnace. His two inventions had a significant effect on Britain's iron-making industry, and iron production quadrupled in the next 20 years.

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(born , Dec. 19, 1849, West Overton, Pa., U.S.—died Dec. 2, 1919, New York, N.Y.) U.S. industrialist. He began building and operating coke ovens in 1870 and organized his own company in 1871. From 1889 he served as chairman of Carnegie Steel Co., the world's largest manufacturer of steel and coke. His role in the violent steel strike of 1892 in Homestead, Pa., provoked an anarchist to shoot and stab him, but he survived. He was instrumental in the formation of the U.S. Steel Corp. in 1901. A noted art collector and philanthropist, he bequeathed the Frick Collection to New York City. Seealso Andrew Carnegie.

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(born April 12, 1777, Hanover county, Va., U.S.—died June 29, 1852, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician. He practiced law from 1797 in Virginia and then in Kentucky, where he served in the state legislature (1803–09). He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives (1811–14, 1815–21, 1823–25); as House speaker (1811–14), he was among those who propelled the U.S. into the War of 1812. He supported a national economic policy of protective tariffs, known as the American System, a national bank, and improvements to internal transportation. His support of the Missouri Compromise earned him the nicknames “The Great Pacificator” and “The Great Compromiser.” After his bid for the presidency in 1824 fell short, Clay threw his support to John Quincy Adams, who made him his secretary of state (1825–29). He served in the U.S. Senate (1806–07, 1810–11, and 1831–42), where he supported the compromise tariff of 1833. He was the National Republican Party candidate for president in 1832 and the Whig Party candidate in 1844. In his last Senate term (1849–52) he argued strongly for passage of the Compromise of 1850.

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(born Oct. 10, 1731, Nice, France—died Feb. 24, 1810, London, Eng.) English physicist and chemist. A millionaire by inheritance, he lived as a recluse most of his life. He discovered the nature and properties of hydrogen, the specific heat of certain substances, and various properties of electricity. He measured the density and mass of the Earth by the method now known as the Cavendish experiment. He discovered the composition of air, work that led to the discovery that water is a compound rather than an element and to the discovery of nitric acid. He anticipated Ohm's law and independently discovered Coulomb's law of electrostatic attraction. He left his fortune to relatives who later endowed the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge (1871).

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(born July 5, 1902, Nahant, Mass., U.S.—died Feb. 27, 1985, Beverly, Mass.) U.S. politician and diplomat. The grandson of Sen. Henry C. Lodge, he served in the U.S. Senate (1937–44, 1947–52) and as U.S. representative to the UN (1953–60). In 1960 he was the Republican vice presidential candidate under Richard Nixon. During the 1960s he served as U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam and as ambassador to West Germany. In 1969 he was the chief U.S. negotiator at the Paris peace talks with North Vietnam. He later served as special envoy to the Vatican.

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(born Jan. 24, 1811, Hartford, Conn., U.S.—died July 5, 1900, Hartford) U.S. educator. He studied law and entered the state legislature, where he helped create a state board of education and the first teachers' institute (1839). With Horace Mann, he undertook to reform the country's common schools; he was an innovator in instituting school inspections, textbook reviews, and parent-teacher organizations. As Rhode Island's first commissioner of education (from 1845) he worked to raise teachers' wages, repair buildings, and obtain higher-education appropriations. In 1855 he helped found the American Journal of Education. He was chancellor of the University of Wisconsin (1858–61). In 1867 he became the first U.S. commissioner of education, in which post he established a federal agency to collect national educational data.

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(born May 27, 1923, Fürth, Ger.) German-born U.S. political scientist and foreign-policy adviser (1969–76). He immigrated with his family to the U.S. in 1938. He taught at Harvard University, where he directed the Defense Studies Program (1959–69). He was appointed assistant for national security affairs by Pres. Richard Nixon in 1968 and served as head of the National Security Council from 1969 to 1975; he was secretary of state from 1973 to 1977. He developed the policy of détente toward the Soviet Union, which led to the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks agreements. He also initiated the first official U.S. contact with China. Although he at first advocated a hard-line policy on Vietnam, he later negotiated the cease-fire agreement that ended the Vietnam War, for which he shared the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1973 with Le Duc Tho (who refused it). After leaving government service, he became an international consultant, lecturer, and writer.

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(born Oct. 7, 1888, Adair county, Iowa, U.S.—died Nov. 18, 1965, Danbury, Conn.) U.S. politician. An agricultural expert, he succeeded his father as editor of Wallace's Farmer (1924–33). In 1932 he helped Franklin D. Roosevelt win Iowa. As U.S. secretary of agriculture (1933–40), he shaped the administration's farm policy, including the Agricultural Adjustment Administration. He served as vice president during Roosevelt's third term but was replaced in 1944 by Harry S. Truman. He was later secretary of commerce (1945–46). Very liberal in his views, he helped form the Progressive Party in 1948 and was its candidate against Truman in the presidential election, receiving more than one million votes. He wrote several books, including Sixty Million Jobs (1945).

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(born Feb. 9, 1773, Charles City county, Va.—died April 4, 1841, Washington, D.C., U.S.) Ninth president of the U.S. (1841). Born into a politically prominent family, he enlisted in the army at age 18 and served under Anthony Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. In 1798 he became secretary of the Northwest Territories and in 1800 governor of the new Indiana Territory. In response to pressure from white settlers, he negotiated treaties with the Indians that ceded millions of acres of additional land to the U.S. When Tecumseh organized an uprising in 1811, Harrison led a U.S. force to defeat the Indians at the Battle of Tippecanoe, a victory that largely established his reputation in the public mind. In the War of 1812 he was made a brigadier general and defeated the British and their Indian allies at the Battle of the Thames in Ontario. After the war he moved to Ohio, where he became prominent in the Whig Party. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1816–19) and Senate (1825–28). As the Whig candidate in the 1836 presidential election, he lost narrowly. In 1840 he and his running mate, John Tyler, won election with a slogan emphasizing Harrison's frontier triumph: “Tippecanoe and Tyler too.” The 68-year-old Harrison delivered his inaugural speech without a hat or overcoat in a cold drizzle, contracted pneumonia, and died one month later; he was the first U.S. president to die in office.

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(born , Feb. 25, 1848, Hempstead, N.Y., U.S.—died Sept. 9, 1909, near Turner, N.Y.) U.S. financier and railroad magnate. After working as an office boy and then a stockbroker on Wall Street, he began his career in railroad management as an executive with the Illinois Central. In 1898 he organized a syndicate to acquire the bankrupt Union Pacific Railroad Co., which he soon brought into prosperity. Using unpopular business methods, he acquired several other lines, notably the Southern Pacific. His abortive 1901 contest with James J. Hill for control of the Northern Pacific led to one of Wall Street's most serious financial crises. The railway trust Harriman formed with J.P. Morgan was dissolved by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1904. His son W. Averell Harriman joined the company in 1915 (chairman 1932–46) and was active in politics; he was elected governor of New York (1954–58) and served the U.S. government as a representative and diplomat in Europe, the Far East, and the Soviet Union.

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(born Jan. 16, 1815, Westernville, N.Y., U.S.—died Jan. 9, 1872, Louisville, Ky.) Union officer during the American Civil War. A graduate of West Point, he was commissioned in the engineers and sent on a tour of military facilities in Europe (1844), after which he wrote a textbook on war (1846) that became widely used. In 1861 he became supreme commander of Union forces in the western theatre and hurriedly organized large volunteer armies, though the military successes of the following spring were largely due to subordinate generals such as Ulysses S. Grant and John Pope. In 1862 he was appointed general in chief of Union forces, but subsequent reverses in Virginia and conflict with his subordinates and with the secretary of war Edwin M. Stanton resulted in his replacement by Grant in 1864.

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(born Oct. 2, 1904, Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire, Eng.—died April 3, 1991, Vevey, Switz.) British author. After studying at the University of Oxford, he converted to Roman Catholicism in 1926. Beginning circa 1930 he worked principally as a freelance journalist for several decades, during which he traveled widely. Stamboul Train (1932; also h1d Orient Express; film, 1934) was the first of his “entertainments,” thrillers with considerable moral complexity and depth; others included A Gun for Sale (1936; also h1d This Gun for Hire; film, 1942), The Confidential Agent (1939; film, 1945), and The Third Man (1949; film, 1949). His finest novels—Brighton Rock (1938; film, 1948), The Power and the Glory (1940; film, 1962), The Heart of the Matter (1948; film, 1954), and The End of the Affair (1951; film, 1999)—all have distinctly religious themes. Several of his novels set in “third-world” nations on the brink of political upheaval were also adapted as films.

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(born July 3, 1746, Dublin, Ire.—died June 6, 1820, London, Eng.) Irish politician. He entered the Irish Parliament in 1775 and, as a brilliant orator, soon became the leading spokesperson of the Irish nationalist agitation. His movement gained momentum; he forced the British in 1779 to remove restraints on Irish trade and in 1782 to relinquish their right to legislate for Ireland. In 1800 he headed the unsuccessful opposition to the union of England and Ireland. In 1805 he was elected to the English House of Commons, where he fought for Catholic emancipation for his last 15 years.

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(born March 4, 1901, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—died April 3, 1991, Encino, Calif.) U.S. contract bridge authority. Goren learned bridge while a law student at McGill University. His innovative system of point-count bidding and his repeated successes in tournaments made him one of the world's most famous and influential players. His several popular books include the widely translated Goren's Bridge Complete (1963).

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(born Sept. 2, 1839, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—died Oct. 29, 1897, New York, N.Y.) U.S. land reformer and economist. He left school before age 14 to work as a clerk and then at sea. In 1858 George went to California, where he worked for newspapers (briefly founding his own) and took part in Democratic party politics. In 1879 he published Progress and Poverty, in which he proposed that the state fully tax all economic rent—the income from the use of the bare land, but not from improvements—and abolish all other taxes. George believed that the government's annual income from this “single tax” would be so large that there would be a surplus for expansion of public works.

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(born July 31, 1816, Southampton county, Va., U.S.—died March 28, 1870, San Francisco, Calif.) U.S. general. He was a graduate of West Point. When the American Civil War broke out, he remained loyal to the Union despite his Southern birth. He commanded an independent force in eastern Kentucky, where he won the first important Union victory in the west in 1862. At the Battle of Chickamauga he organized an unyielding defense, earning promotion to brigadier general and the nickname “the Rock of Chickamauga.” In 1864 he defeated the Confederate forces of Gen. John B. Hood (1831–79) in the Battle of Nashville, earning another promotion and the gratitude of Congress.

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(born , Oct. 24, 1929, Charleston, W.Va., U.S.) U.S. composer. Born to musician parents, he studied at the University of Michigan and from 1965 taught at the University of Pennsylvania. His style is known particularly for its unusual and hauntingly evocative timbres. Echoes of Time and the River (1967, Pulitzer Prize) and Ancient Voices of Children (1970) brought him wide fame. His other works include Madrigals, Books I-IV (1965–70), Night of the Four Moons (1969), Black Angels (1970), Makrokosmos I and II (1972, 1973), and Star-Child (1977).

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(born June 19, 1903, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died June 2, 1941, New York) U.S. baseball player, one of the game's great hitters. Gehrig attended Columbia University before joining the New York Yankees. From 1925 to 1939 the left-handed first baseman played in a record 2,130 consecutive games. He earned the nickname “the Iron Horse” long before this streak was over; Gehrig's record was not broken until 1995 (see Cal Ripken). In 1932 Gehrig became the first player to hit four home runs in a single game, and he batted in 150 or more runs in a season seven times. In 1939 his physical abilities had begun to deteriorate and he took himself out of the lineup; he was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, which came to be known as Lou Gehrig's disease. He left baseball with a career batting average of .340 and 493 home runs. His 1,990 runs batted in place him third in history, behind Hank Aaron and Babe Ruth. On July 4, 1939, more than 60,000 Yankee fans turned out to recognize Gehrig's achievements and heard him deliver a speech in which he claimed to be the “luckiest man on the face of the earth.” Gehrig was the first player to have his number (4) retired by his team.

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(born Sept. 16, 1950, Keyser, W.Va., U.S.) U.S. critic and scholar. Gates attended Yale University and the University of Cambridge. He has chaired Harvard University's department of Afro-American Studies for many years. In such works as Figures in Black (1987) and The Signifying Monkey (1988) he has used the term signifyin' to represent a practice that can link African and African American literary histories; his other books include Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Black Man (1998). He has edited many anthologies, including Reading Black, Reading Feminist (1990) and the Norton Anthology of African American Writers (1997), and has restored and edited many lost works by black writers. He writes frequently to a general public, notably in The New Yorker, and he wrote the television series Wonders of the African World (1999).

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(born Oct. 8, 1846, near Wheaton, Ill., U.S.—died Aug. 15, 1927, New York, N.Y.) U.S. businessman, chief organizer of the U.S. Steel Corp. He began practicing law in 1871, becoming an authority on corporate law, and he served as judge of DuPage County, Ill. (1882–90). In 1898 he became president of Federal Steel Co.; when Federal merged with other companies to become U.S. Steel Corp. in 1901, Gary was elected chairman of the board of directors. As chief executive officer for 26 years, he presided over its growth and development. He promoted profit sharing, higher wages, and better working conditions, but he was a firm opponent of unions. Gary, Ind., named in his honour, was laid out in 1906 by U.S. Steel.

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(born 1815, New Market, Md., U.S.—died Feb. 13, 1882, Liberia) U.S. clergyman and abolitionist. Born a slave, he escaped in 1824 to New York, where he became a Presbyterian minister. He joined the American Anti-Slavery Society and agitated for emancipation; in a 1843 speech at a national convention of freedmen he called on slaves to revolt and murder their masters. The convention refused to endorse his radicalism, and he gradually turned more toward religion, serving as pastor in a number of Presbyterian pulpits during the next two decades. Late in life he favoured emigration of U.S. blacks to Africa. He was appointed U.S. minister to Liberia in 1881 but died within two months of his arrival in the African nation.

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orig. Johann Heinrich Füssli

(born Feb. 7, 1741, Zürich, Switz.—died April 16, 1825, London, Eng.) Swiss-born British painter and writer on art. The son of a portrait painter, he trained in theology as well as in art and art history. He left his native Zürich for London in 1764. Encouraged by Sir Joshua Reynolds, he went to Italy in 1770 and stayed for eight years; on his return to England, his works exhibited at the Royal Academy, such as his most famous work, The Nightmare (1781), secured his reputation. His subject matter was chiefly literary, and his images portrayed macabre fantasies and the grotesque. He was elected a full academician in 1790 and taught painting at the academy (1799–1805).

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(born , Dec. 19, 1849, West Overton, Pa., U.S.—died Dec. 2, 1919, New York, N.Y.) U.S. industrialist. He began building and operating coke ovens in 1870 and organized his own company in 1871. From 1889 he served as chairman of Carnegie Steel Co., the world's largest manufacturer of steel and coke. His role in the violent steel strike of 1892 in Homestead, Pa., provoked an anarchist to shoot and stab him, but he survived. He was instrumental in the formation of the U.S. Steel Corp. in 1901. A noted art collector and philanthropist, he bequeathed the Frick Collection to New York City. Seealso Andrew Carnegie.

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(born June 26, 1853, London, Eng.—died June 24, 1943, London) British photographer. He first attracted attention as a popular London bookseller and champion of the work of George Bernard Shaw and Aubrey Beardsley. Around 1890 he began to photograph English and French cathedrals, and from 1898 he devoted himself exclusively to photography. His belief that only static views of idealized beauty were worth photographing clashed with the early 20th-century tendency to photograph fleeting images, but his architectural photographs are considered among the world's finest.

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Dutch Frederik Hendrik

(born Jan. 29, 1584, Delft, Holland—died March 14, 1647, The Hague) Third hereditary stadtholder (1625–47) of the Dutch Republic. He succeeded his half brother, Maurice of Nassau, as prince of Orange and count of Nassau. Like his father, William I, Frederick Henry continued the war of independence against Spain. By establishing hereditary succession to the stadtholdership for the house of Orange, he exercised semimonarchical powers. A successful strategist, he was responsible for the United Provinces' foreign policy, beginning negotiations that led to a favourable treaty with Spain in 1648.

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(born June 29, 1910, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died July 28, 1969, New York City) U.S. composer, librettist, and lyricist. The son of a piano teacher, in 1936 he moved to Hollywood, where he worked with Burton Lane, Jule Styne, Jimmy McHugh, and Hoagy Carmichael. His wartime songs include “Praise the Lord and Pass the Ammunition” and “What Do You Do in the Infantry?”; postwar hits include “On a Slow Boat to China” and “Baby It's Cold Outside” (Academy Award, 1949). His first Broadway musical was Where's Charley? (1948; film, 1952). In 1950 he produced Guys and Dolls (film, 1955), one of the greatest American musicals. It was followed by The Most Happy Fella (1956) and How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (1962, Pulitzer Prize). His work for film includes the score for Hans Christian Andersen (1952).

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(born March 10, 1858, Tonbridge, Kent, Eng.—died Dec. 26, 1933, Hinton St. George, Somerset) English lexicographer and philologist. With his brother, Francis George Fowler (d. 1918), he wrote The King's English (1906) and The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (1911). H.W. Fowler's major work, planned with his brother, was A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926), an alphabetical listing of points of grammar, syntax, style, pronunciation, and punctuation, whose depth, style, and humour have made it a classic.

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(born July 30, 1863, Wayne county, Mich., U.S.—died April 7, 1947, Dearborn, Mich.) U.S. industrialist and pioneer automobile manufacturer. Ford worked his way up from a machinist's apprentice (at age 15) to the post of chief engineer at the Edison Company in Detroit. He built his first experimental car in 1896. In 1903, with several partners, he formed the Ford Motor Company. In 1908 he designed the Model T; demand became so great that Ford developed new mass-production methods, including the first moving assembly line in 1913. He developed the Model A in 1928 to replace the Model T, and in 1932 he introduced the V-8 engine. He observed an eight-hour workday and paid his workers far above the average, holding that well-paid labourers become the consumers that industrialists require, but strenuously opposed labour unions. As the first to make car ownership affordable to large numbers of Americans, he exerted a vast and permanent influence on American life. Seealso Ford Foundation.

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(born , Jan. 2, 1830, Hopewell, N.Y., U.S.—died May 20, 1913, West Palm Beach, Fla.) U.S. financier. He initially worked as a grain merchant. His friendship with John D. Rockefeller led to their establishing a firm that in 1870 became the Standard Oil Co. Flagler served as a director of Standard Oil of New Jersey until 1911. He was hugely influential in the development of Florida as a vacation centre, involving himself in such enterprises as extending the Florida East Coast Railway, dredging Miami's harbour, and the construction of a chain of luxury hotels.

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(born April 22, 1707, Sharpham Park, Somerset, Eng.—died Oct. 8, 1754, Lisbon, Port.) British novelist and playwright. Fielding attended Eton College but left early and lost his family's support. In his 25 plays, all written early, he was essentially a satirist of political corruption; because of his sharp commentary he was eventually effectively banished from the theatre, whereupon he took up the study of law. In 1748 he was appointed a magistrate, in which role he established a new tradition of justice and suppression of crime in London. He probably wrote Shamela (1741), a burlesque of Samuel Richardson's Pamela that he never claimed. In the entertaining and original Joseph Andrews (1742) he also parodies Richardson's novel. Tom Jones (1749), his most popular work, is noted for its great comic gusto, vast gallery of characters, and contrasted scenes of high- and lowlife. The more sober Amelia (1751) anticipates the Victorian domestic novel. In these works he helped develop the English novel as a planned, realistic narrative genre surveying contemporary society.

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(born April 17, 1866, London, Eng.—died May 2, 1927, Kingston Harbour, Jam.) British physiologist. His studies of lymph secretion clarified the roles of different pressures in fluid exchanges between vessels and tissues. Starling and William Bayliss showed how nerve impulses control peristalsis and coined the term hormone. Starling also found that water and necessary chemicals filtered out by the kidneys are reabsorbed at the lower end of the nephron. His Principles of Human Physiology (1912), continually revised, was a standard international text.

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(born Feb. 2, 1859, Croydon, Surrey, Eng.—died July 8, 1939, Washbrook, Suffolk) British sexuality researcher. A medical doctor, he gave up his practice to devote himself to scientific and literary work. His major work, the seven-volume Studies in the Psychology of Sex (1897–1928), was a comprehensive, groundbreaking encyclopaedia of human sexual biology, behaviour, and attitudes whose topics included homosexuality, masturbation, and the physiology of sexual behaviour. Sale of the first volume led to a trial when the salesman was arrested on obscenity charges; the later volumes had to be published in the U.S. and were legally available only to the medical profession until 1935. Ellis viewed sexual activity as a natural expression of love and sought to dispel the widespread fear and ignorance surrounding it. He was also known as a champion of women's rights.

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(born Oct. 8, 1846, near Wheaton, Ill., U.S.—died Aug. 15, 1927, New York, N.Y.) U.S. businessman, chief organizer of the U.S. Steel Corp. He began practicing law in 1871, becoming an authority on corporate law, and he served as judge of DuPage County, Ill. (1882–90). In 1898 he became president of Federal Steel Co.; when Federal merged with other companies to become U.S. Steel Corp. in 1901, Gary was elected chairman of the board of directors. As chief executive officer for 26 years, he presided over its growth and development. He promoted profit sharing, higher wages, and better working conditions, but he was a firm opponent of unions. Gary, Ind., named in his honour, was laid out in 1906 by U.S. Steel.

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(born , Feb. 25, 1848, Hempstead, N.Y., U.S.—died Sept. 9, 1909, near Turner, N.Y.) U.S. financier and railroad magnate. After working as an office boy and then a stockbroker on Wall Street, he began his career in railroad management as an executive with the Illinois Central. In 1898 he organized a syndicate to acquire the bankrupt Union Pacific Railroad Co., which he soon brought into prosperity. Using unpopular business methods, he acquired several other lines, notably the Southern Pacific. His abortive 1901 contest with James J. Hill for control of the Northern Pacific led to one of Wall Street's most serious financial crises. The railway trust Harriman formed with J.P. Morgan was dissolved by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1904. His son W. Averell Harriman joined the company in 1915 (chairman 1932–46) and was active in politics; he was elected governor of New York (1954–58) and served the U.S. government as a representative and diplomat in Europe, the Far East, and the Soviet Union.

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(born Feb. 23, 1751, Hampton, N.H.—died June 6, 1829, Roxbury, Mass., U.S.) U.S. army officer and secretary of war (1801–09). He fought in the American Revolution and later was appointed marshal for the District of Maine (1789–93). He represented Massachusetts in the U.S. House of Representatives (1793–97), was secretary of war under Pres. Thomas Jefferson, and ordered the establishment of Fort Dearborn at “Chikago” in 1803. In the War of 1812, he commanded several failed attempts to invade Canada and was later recalled by Pres. James Madison.

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(born Aug. 1, 1815, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.—died Jan. 6, 1882, Rome, Italy) U.S. writer and lawyer. Dana left Harvard College because of weakened eyesight and shipped out as a common sailor; after regaining his health, he returned and became a lawyer. He is remembered for his autobiographical Two Years Before the Mast (1840), which revealed the abuses endured by sailors. The Seaman's Friend (1841) became the authoritative guide to seamen's legal rights and duties. He also produced a scholarly edition of Henry Wheaton's Elements of International Law (1866), provided free legal aid to fugitive slaves, and served as U.S. attorney for Massachusetts.

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(born , Oct. 24, 1929, Charleston, W.Va., U.S.) U.S. composer. Born to musician parents, he studied at the University of Michigan and from 1965 taught at the University of Pennsylvania. His style is known particularly for its unusual and hauntingly evocative timbres. Echoes of Time and the River (1967, Pulitzer Prize) and Ancient Voices of Children (1970) brought him wide fame. His other works include Madrigals, Books I-IV (1965–70), Night of the Four Moons (1969), Black Angels (1970), Makrokosmos I and II (1972, 1973), and Star-Child (1977).

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(born 1748, Gibraltar—died Jan. 12, 1812, London, Eng.) British army officer and governor-general of Canada (1807–11). In the American Revolution, he was wounded at the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775 and helped repel the American army's invasion of Canada in 1776. He later served in India. As governor-general in Canada, he cooperated with the governing clique in Quebec but conducted an unpopular repressive policy toward French Canadians. He resigned in 1811 and returned to England.

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(born Jan. 16, 1872, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, Eng.—died July 29, 1966, Vence, France) British actor, stage designer, and drama theorist. He was the son of Ellen Terry. He acted with Henry Irving's company (1889–97) and then turned to designing stage sets, decor, and costumes. He moved to Florence (1906), where he opened the School for the Art of the Theatre (1913). His international journal The Mask (1908–29) made his theatrical ideas widely known. His books On the Art of the Theatre (1911), Towards a New Theatre (1913), and Scene (1923) outlined innovations in stage design based on the use of portable screens and changing patterns of light; his theories influenced the antinaturalist trends of the modern theatre.

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(born March 11, 1897, Menlo Park, Calif., U.S.—died Dec. 10, 1965, Shady, N.Y.) U.S. avant-garde composer. He began early to experiment with techniques such as tone clusters and direct manipulation of piano strings. Five tours of Europe as composer-pianist (1923–33) expanded his reputation. He coinvented the Rhythmicon, an instrument for producing several conflicting rhythms simultaneously. Immensely prolific, he wrote nearly 1,000 pieces, including 19 completed symphonies, hundreds of piano works, and many ballets. In 1927 he founded the journal New Music. His book New Musical Resources (1930) presented his compositional ideas. He was one of the most important innovators in the history of American music.

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(born 1740, Lancaster, Lancashire, Eng.—died 1800, London) British inventor and industrialist. In 1783 he obtained a patent for producing iron bars quickly and economically in a rolling mill with grooved rolls. The following year he patented his puddling process for converting pig iron into wrought iron in a reverberatory furnace. His two inventions had a significant effect on Britain's iron-making industry, and iron production quadrupled in the next 20 years.

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(born April 16?, 1730?—died Dec. 23, 1795, Cornwall, Eng.) British commander in chief during the American Revolution. Commissioned in the British army in 1751, he went to North America in 1775 as second in command to William Howe. He commanded British troops to victories in New York and then succeeded to the supreme command on Howe's retirement in 1778. He led an offensive in the Carolinas in 1780 and effected the fall of Charleston. On his return to New York, he left Charles Cornwallis in charge of subsequent operations, which ultimately resulted in the British surrender after the Siege of Yorktown. He resigned in 1781 and returned to England, where he found himself blamed for the Yorktown defeat.

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(born April 12, 1777, Hanover county, Va., U.S.—died June 29, 1852, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician. He practiced law from 1797 in Virginia and then in Kentucky, where he served in the state legislature (1803–09). He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives (1811–14, 1815–21, 1823–25); as House speaker (1811–14), he was among those who propelled the U.S. into the War of 1812. He supported a national economic policy of protective tariffs, known as the American System, a national bank, and improvements to internal transportation. His support of the Missouri Compromise earned him the nicknames “The Great Pacificator” and “The Great Compromiser.” After his bid for the presidency in 1824 fell short, Clay threw his support to John Quincy Adams, who made him his secretary of state (1825–29). He served in the U.S. Senate (1806–07, 1810–11, and 1831–42), where he supported the compromise tariff of 1833. He was the National Republican Party candidate for president in 1832 and the Whig Party candidate in 1844. In his last Senate term (1849–52) he argued strongly for passage of the Compromise of 1850.

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(born March 4, 1901, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—died April 3, 1991, Encino, Calif.) U.S. contract bridge authority. Goren learned bridge while a law student at McGill University. His innovative system of point-count bidding and his repeated successes in tournaments made him one of the world's most famous and influential players. His several popular books include the widely translated Goren's Bridge Complete (1963).

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(born Oct. 10, 1731, Nice, France—died Feb. 24, 1810, London, Eng.) English physicist and chemist. A millionaire by inheritance, he lived as a recluse most of his life. He discovered the nature and properties of hydrogen, the specific heat of certain substances, and various properties of electricity. He measured the density and mass of the Earth by the method now known as the Cavendish experiment. He discovered the composition of air, work that led to the discovery that water is a compound rather than an element and to the discovery of nitric acid. He anticipated Ohm's law and independently discovered Coulomb's law of electrostatic attraction. He left his fortune to relatives who later endowed the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge (1871).

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(born Feb. 9, 1854, Dublin, Ire.—died Oct. 22, 1935, Minster, Kent, Eng.) Irish lawyer and politician. In 1892 he was elected to the British House of Commons and was appointed Irish solicitor general. He served as British solicitor general (1900–05), attorney general (1915), first lord of the Admiralty (1916–17), and lord of appeal (1921–29). Known as the “uncrowned king of Ulster,” he successfully led Northern Irish resistance to the British government's attempts to introduce Home Rule for all of Ireland.

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Promontory, at the southern entrance to Chesapeake Bay, southeastern Virginia, U.S. Located in Virginia Beach city, it is opposite Cape Charles, to which it is connected by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel. It is the site of Cape Henry Memorial, which marks the 1607 landing of the first permanent English settlers in America. The memorial, part of Colonial National Historical Park, includes the Old Lighthouse, the first in the U.S. (1792). The nearby New Lighthouse (1881) has one of the world's most powerful lights, visible offshore for 20 mi (32 km).

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orig. Henry Campbell

(born Sept. 7, 1836, Glasgow, Scot.—died April 22, 1908, London, Eng.) British politician. A member of the House of Commons from 1868, he was elected leader of the Liberal Party in 1899 and served as prime minister (1905–08). His popularity unified his badly divided party. Though much of his legislative program was nullified by the House of Lords, he obtained approval of the Trades Disputes Act of 1906. He took the lead in granting self-government to the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony, thereby securing the Boers' loyalty to the British Empire.

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(b. July 2, 1862, Wigton, Cumberland, Eng.—d. March 12, 1942, London) British scientist, a pioneer in solid-state physics. With his son (William) Lawrence Bragg (1890–1971), he shared a 1915 Nobel Prize for research on the determination of crystal structures and Lawrence's discovery (1912) of the Bragg law of X-ray diffraction. The Bragg ionization spectrometer William designed and built is the prototype of all modern X-ray and neutron diffractometers; the two men used it to make the first exact measurements of X-ray wavelengths and crystal data.

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(born Jan. 19, 1813, Charlton, Hertfordshire, Eng.—died March 15, 1898, London) British inventor and engineer. Son of a metallurgist, he set up his own casting business at 17. At that time the only iron-based construction materials were cast iron and wrought iron. So-called steel was made by adding carbon to pure forms of wrought iron (see wootz); the resulting material was used almost entirely for cutting tools. During the Crimean War Bessemer worked to devise a stronger cast iron for cannon. The result was a process for the inexpensive production of large, slag-free ingots of steel as workable as any wrought iron. He eventually also discovered how to remove excess oxygen from the iron. The Bessemer process (1856) led to the development of the Bessemer converter. Seealso basic Bessemer process; R.F. Mushet; puddling process.

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(born May 1, 1764, Fulneck, Yorkshire, Eng.—died Sept. 3, 1820, New Orleans, La., U.S.) British-U.S. architect and civil engineer. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1795. His first important building was the State Penitentiary in Richmond, Va. In 1798, in Philadelphia, he designed the Bank of Pennsylvania, considered the first U.S. monument of the Greek Revival style. Pres. Thomas Jefferson appointed him surveyor of public buildings. Latrobe inherited the task of completing the U.S. Capitol, and later rebuilt it after its destruction by the British. In Baltimore he designed the country's first cathedral (1818). He was active as an engineer, especially in the design of waterworks. He is widely regarded as having established architecture as a profession in the U.S.

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(born Aug. 24, 1872, London, Eng.—died May 20, 1956, Rapallo, Italy) English caricaturist, writer, and dandy. His sophisticated drawings and parodies were unique in capturing, usually without malice, whatever was pretentious, affected, or absurd in his famous and fashionable contemporaries. His first literary collection, The Works of Max Beerbohm (1896), and his first book of drawings, Caricatures of Twenty-five Gentlemen (1896), were followed by the charming fable The Happy Hypocrite (1897) and his only novel, Zuleika Dobson (1911), a burlesque of Oxford life. His story collection Seven Men (1919) is considered a masterpiece.

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(born June 24, 1813, Litchfield, Conn., U.S.—died March 8, 1887, Brooklyn, N.Y.) U.S. Congregational clergyman. The son of a minister, he was the brother of Harriet Beecher Stowe and Catharine Esther Beecher. After graduating from Amherst College and later studying at Lane Theological Seminary, he served as pastor to congregations in Indiana. In 1847 he was called to Plymouth Church in Brooklyn. A famous orator and one of the most influential preachers of his time, he opposed slavery and supported women's suffrage, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, and scientific biblical criticism. He gained unfavourable publicity in 1874 when he was put on trial for adultery, but he was acquitted and returned to his church.

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orig. Henry Warren Beaty

(born March 30, 1937, Richmond, Va., U.S.) U.S. film actor, producer, director, and screenwriter. He studied acting with famed coach Stella Adler in New York and made his film debut in Splendor in the Grass (1961). He later starred in and produced the influential film Bonnie and Clyde (1967). Often cowriting, directing, or producing his own films, he later starred in Shampoo (1975), Heaven Can Wait (1978), Reds (1981, Academy Award for direction), and Bulworth (1998).

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(born Feb. 9, 1854, Dublin, Ire.—died Oct. 22, 1935, Minster, Kent, Eng.) Irish lawyer and politician. In 1892 he was elected to the British House of Commons and was appointed Irish solicitor general. He served as British solicitor general (1900–05), attorney general (1915), first lord of the Admiralty (1916–17), and lord of appeal (1921–29). Known as the “uncrowned king of Ulster,” he successfully led Northern Irish resistance to the British government's attempts to introduce Home Rule for all of Ireland.

Learn more about Carson (of Duncairn), Edward Henry, Baron with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Jan. 24, 1811, Hartford, Conn., U.S.—died July 5, 1900, Hartford) U.S. educator. He studied law and entered the state legislature, where he helped create a state board of education and the first teachers' institute (1839). With Horace Mann, he undertook to reform the country's common schools; he was an innovator in instituting school inspections, textbook reviews, and parent-teacher organizations. As Rhode Island's first commissioner of education (from 1845) he worked to raise teachers' wages, repair buildings, and obtain higher-education appropriations. In 1855 he helped found the American Journal of Education. He was chancellor of the University of Wisconsin (1858–61). In 1867 he became the first U.S. commissioner of education, in which post he established a federal agency to collect national educational data.

Learn more about Barnard, Henry with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born circa 1778, Powhatan, Va., U.S.—died March 26, 1838, Cooper county, Mo.) U.S. fur trader. Arriving in Missouri about 1802, he prospered in mining and land speculation. In 1820 he became the state's first lieutenant governor. With Andrew Henry (1771–1833), he organized the Rocky Mountain Fur Co. in 1822 and established a trading post at the mouth of the Yellowstone River. Forced to abandon the post by Indians, he instituted the annual rendezvous (1825), where trappers would trade their furs to him for supplies for the next year. By 1827 he had made a fortune and retired. Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives (1831–37), he championed Western interests.

Learn more about Ashley, William Henry with a free trial on Britannica.com.

known as Hap Arnold

(born June 25, 1886, Gladwyne, Pa., U.S.—died Jan. 15, 1950, Sonoma, Calif.) U.S. air force officer. He attended West Point and initially served in the infantry. Volunteering as a flyer, he received instruction from Orville Wright. After World War I, with Billy Mitchell he became an eloquent advocate of an expanded air force. He rose through the ranks of the U.S. Army Air Corps to become its commander in 1938, and he commanded the Army Air Forces worldwide during World War II, overseeing a massive buildup and greatly influencing air bombardment strategy. He was named general of the army in 1944 and, after the National Defense Act of 1947 created an independent Air Force, general of the Air Force.

Learn more about Arnold, Henry (Harley) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born April 23, 1861, Brackenhurst, near Southwell, Nottinghamshire, Eng.—died May 14, 1936, London) British field marshal. He fought in the South African War and served as inspector general of cavalry (1910–14). In World War I, he commanded with distinction in the Middle East. His victory over the Turks at Gaza (1917) led to the capture of Jerusalem, and his victory at Megiddo, along with his capture of Damascus and Aleppo, ended Ottoman power in Syria. His success was partly due to his innovative use of cavalry and other mobile forces, and he is remembered as the last great British leader of mounted cavalry. As high commissioner for Egypt (1919–25), he steered that country to recognition as a sovereign state (1922).

Learn more about Allenby (of Megiddo and of Felixstowe), Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount with a free trial on Britannica.com.

Henry is a city in Marshall County, Illinois, United States. The population was 2,540 at the 2000 census. It is part of the Peoria, Illinois Metropolitan Statistical Area.

Geography

Henry is located at (41.113152, -89.360218).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.5 square miles (3.8 km²), of which, 1.4 square miles (3.6 km²) of it is land and 0.1 square miles (0.2 km²) of it (4.79%) is water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 2,540 people, 1,014 households, and 678 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,821.3 people per square mile (705.5/km²). There were 1,085 housing units at an average density of 778.0/sq mi (301.4/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 97.68% White, 0.51% African American, 0.20% Native American, 0.20% Asian, 0.12% from other races, and 1.30% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.63% of the population.

There were 1,014 households out of which 29.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.2% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.1% were non-families. 29.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 3.00.

In the city the population was spread out with 23.9% under the age of 18, 6.9% from 18 to 24, 24.1% from 25 to 44, 23.0% from 45 to 64, and 22.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 88.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.1 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $40,236, and the median income for a family was $50,375. Males had a median income of $39,919 versus $18,621 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,473. About 5.7% of families and 5.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.5% of those under age 18 and 6.3% of those age 65 or over.

History

Henry is named after General James D. Henry, and was initially surveyed in 1834. The topology of the land on the west side of the Illinois River, with relatively steep banks rising well above river level, assured early settlers that their homes would not flood.

Its slogan, "Best Town in Illinois by a Dam Site," is derived from the city's distinction of having the first lock and dam built on the Illinois River. It was completed in 1870 at a cost of $400,000.

References

External links

• Henry city web site
• Henry-Senachwine School District