the encyclopedic entry of Daijō-kan

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Ritsuryō organization and hierarchy

The eighth century ritsuryō innovations would proved to be remarkably durable and resilient across the span of centuries.

Any exercise of meaningful powers of court officials reached its nadir during the years of the Tokugawa shogunate, and yet the Daijō-kan did manage to persist intact through the initial years of the Meiji Restoration. It is not possible to evaluate any individual office without assessing its role in the context of a durable yet flexible network and hierarchy of functionaries.

In the early Meiji period, the appointed Imperial Daijo-kan was filled with princes, aristocrats, loyalists domain lords (daimyo), and samurai.

Within months after Emperor Meiji's Charter Oath, the ancient ritsuryō structure was slightly modified with an express focus on the separation of legislative, administrative, and judicial functions within the Daijō-kan system. The evolution of a deliberative body within a modern constitutional system was gradual, and it's constituent differences from the old Daijō-kan were not entirely self-evident at first, as revealed in an Imperial message in 1869:

"The Assembly shall be for the wide ranging consultation of public opinion and, respecting the Imperial will which laid the foundations of national government, it will be a place where the energies of the multitude are harnessed. Thus, it is necessary that proceedings will show respect for the Imperial rescript, be united in purpose with the Daijō-kan, take the fundamentals of government to heart, judiciously address matters which arise, and act to ensure that unity within the country is not compromised."

Some months later, another major reform of the Daijō-kan re-united the the legislative and executive functions which had been clearly separated earlier.

In 1871, The office of Daijō-daijin in the Great Council of State was briefly resurrected under the Meiji Constitution with the appointment of Sanjō Sanetomi. Despite the similarity of names for its constituent offices, this Daijō-kan would have been unrecognizable to Fujiwara courtiers of the Heian period. Nor would it have seemed at all familiar to those men who surrounded the emperor in the days of the Kemmu Restoration. In due course, it was decided that a modern integrated cabinet system would better serve a modern Japan. The Daijō-kan system, which had been divided into ministerial committees, would be replaced by a more modern model.

In December 1885, the old system was abolished completely; and yet, even afterwards, some elements of old system were adapted to new uses. For example, in that year, the title of Naidaijin was reconfigured to mean the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan in the . The man who had previously held the office of prime minister or chief minister of the initial restoration government was the Daijō-daijin, Sanjō Sanetomi. Sanjō petitioned the emperor to be relieved of his ancient ritsuryō office; and he was then immediately appointed Naidaijin, or Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal. The office of the Privy Seal was identical with the old Naidaijin only in the sense of theis Japanese title -- not in terms of function or powers.

Council of State

This dry catalog does provide a superficial glimpse inside the complexity of what was initially designed as a pre-feudal court structure. What this list cannot easily explain is how or why the Daijō-kan turned out to be both flexible and useful across a span of centuries:

See also, .

2. .
3. .
4. .
5. -- three positions. There are commonly three Dainagon, sometimes more.
6. .
7. -- three positions. There are commonly three Shōnagon.
8. . This office functions as a manager of activities within the palace.
9. . These are specifically named men who act at the sole discretion of the emperor.
10. This administrator was charged or tasked with supervising four ministries: Center, Civil Services, Ceremonies, and Taxation.
11. This administrator was charged or tasked with supervising four ministries: Military, Justice, Treasury and Imperial Household.
12. .
13. .
14. .
15. .
16. .
17. .
18. -- 20 positions. There are twenty officials with this title.

The Eight Ministries

A mere list of the court titles cannot reveal nearly enough about the actual functioning of the Daijō-kan; but at least the broad hierarchical relationships which are drawn here amongst these court offices become more readily identified in a changing historical context.

I. Ministry of the Center

The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a . This ministry became the governmental agency for matters pertaining to the emperor. Amongst the significant Daijō-kan officials within this ministry structure were:

19. . This official oversees the inspection of the interior apartments of the palace; and he is granted the privilege of retaining his swords in the presence of the emperor.
20. .
21. .
22. .
23. .
24. -- 8 positions. There are 8 officials with this title, all equal in rank and in the confidence of the Emperor.
25. -- 90 positions. There are 90 officials with this title; and when a sesshō becomes a kampaku, these men function under his orders. If the emperor is still a child, or if a woman occupies the throne, a kampaku is chosen to represent the emperor; and the kampaku is considered first amongst all others in Japan. Then the Shogun cannot undertake anything of importance without his approval. When the emperor governs directly on his own, the Udoneri may be by-passed.
26. .
27. . These officials must be very well versed in the affairs of China and Japan: and they edit or re-draft all of the emperor's edicts, rescripts, memorials and letters. For this kind of work, only men of the highest merit and distinction are chosen.
28. .
29. .
30. .
31. .
32. .
33. .
34. .
35. -- see Onmyōdō.
36. .
37. .
38. .
39. .

II. Ministry of Civil Services

The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a ; also known as the "Ministry of Legislative Direction and Public Instruction". This ministry collected and maintained biographical archives of meritorious subjects. Amongst the significant Daijō-kan officials within this ministry structure were:

40. ; also known as Chief minister of public instruction. This office is ordinarily filled by a son or close relative of the emperor. There are seven judges who directly assist this court official:

1. .
2. .
3-4. -- two positions.
5-6. -- two positions.
7. -- two positions, one superior to the other.

41. .

1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .

42. . There would have been many copyist calligraphers working under the direction of the chief calligrapher.
43. .
44. -- two positions.
45. -- two positions.
46. -- two positions.
47.
48.

III. Ministry of Ceremonies

The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a ; also known as the "Ministry of the Interior". Amongst the significant Daijō-kan officials within this ministry structure were:

49. .
50. .
51. .
52. .
53. .
54. .
55. .
56. .
57. .
58. .
59. -- two positions.
60. . This official is charged with receiving ambassadors from China and Korean and serving as interpreters for them.
61. .
62. -- two positions.
63. -- two positions.
64. -- two positions.
65. -- two positions.
66. -- two positions.
67. -- two positions.

IV. Ministry of Taxation

The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a . Amongst the significant Daijō-kan officials within this ministry structure were:

68. . The Chief Minister who concerns himself with the people's affairs, with the general police, and with land survey records. In this ministry, registries for all towns and villages are maintained, which include census records of general population, records of births and records of deaths.
69. .
70. .
71. -- four positions. There would have been four undersecretaries, two of whom would have been considered superior to the other two:

72. . In former times, when the Emperor enjoyed the full exercise of all his powers, this court official would have supervised gathering of all tax revenues and imperial expenditures throughout the country; but from the 12th century, the activities of this steward were more narrowly focused on the revenue and expenditures of the court itself.
73. .
74. -- two positions. These officials were charged with overseeing financial accounts.
75. -- two positions. These officials were aides to the chief comptrollers.
76. .
77. . All food which might be served to the emperor was scrupulously examined by the food inspectors; and the rice is counted grain-by-grain so that the emperor is given exactly the same amount each day.

V. Ministry of the Military

The Imperial court's changed significantly across the centuries, mirroring the ebb and flow of Imperial power and influence; and yet, the essential relationships within the ritsuryō structure remained largely unchanged throughout the serial reigns of Japanese sovereigns.

MINISTRY OF MILITARY (Edo period)
Title	Kanji	Romanization	Notes
The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a ministry dealing with military affairs. Amongst the significant Daijō-kan officials within this ministry structure were:
Minister or chief official	兵部卿	Hyōbu-kyō	Usually a son or a close relative of the Emperor.
First assistant to the Minister	兵部大輔	Hyōbu-taifu	...
Second assistant to the Minister	兵部少輔	Hyōbu-shō	...
Senior staff officer	兵部大丞	Hyōbu no dai-jō	...
Junior staff officers	兵部少丞	Hyōbu no shō-jō	Two positions.
Director of dance	隼人正	Hayato no kami	Considered a very low rank.
First assistant director	隼人佑	Hayato no jō	...
Alternate assistant director	隼人令史	Hayato no sakan	...

VI. Ministry of Justice

The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a . Amongst the significant Daijō-kan officials within this ministry structure were:

86. .
87. .
88. .
89. .
90. -- two positions.
91. . There are three classes of officials under the control of the chief judge.
92. .
93. .
94. .
95. .
96. .
97. .

VII. Ministry of the Treasury

The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a . Amongst the significant Daijō-kan officials within this ministry structure were:

98. . This official supervises the receipt of tributes from the provinces and imposes tribute on others.
99. .
100. .
101. -- two positions.
102. -- two positions.
103. .
104. .
105. .

VIII. Ministry of the Imperial Household

The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a . The origin of the current Imperial Household Agency can be traced back to the provisions on the government structure which were put into effect during the reign of Emperor Monmu, with significant modifications in 1702, 1870, and 1889, Daijō-kan officials within this ministry structure were:

106. -- the surveyor of all works which are executed within the interior of the palace.
107. .
108. -- two persons.
109. -- two persons.
110. -- two persons.
111. .
112. .
113. -- two positions.
114. -- two positions.
115. .
116. .
117. -- two positions.
118. -- two positions.
119. . An expert who evaluates the price/cost of work to be done or already completed.
120. .
121. .
122. .
123. .
124. .
125. .
126. -- two positions.
127. - two positions.
128. .
129. .
130. .
131. .
132. .
133. . No male physician would be permitted to care for the health of the emperor's women.
134. .
135. .
136. .
137. .
138. .
139. .
140. .
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143. .
144. .
145. . This courtier doesn't actually serve the emperor directly; rather, he is only the overseer of those who are actual cupbearers.
146. .
147. .
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149. .
150. .|
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Tokugawa Courtiers

Even nominal administrative powers of court officials reached a nadir during the years of the Tokugawa shogunate. In this impoverished period, titles and court rank were still prized by those outside the traditional kuge. The Tokugawa shoguns did not demur when the emperor offered rank and an office in the court:

Tokugawa Ieyasu had the rank of Jūichii (First Rank, Second Class) and the office of Udaijin (Great Minister of the Right, i.e., inferior to the Minister of the Left).
Tokugawa Hidetada had the rank of Jūichii and was Daijō Daijin (the Great Minister or Chancellor of the Realm).
Tokugawa Iemitsu had the same rank and was Sadaijin (Great Minister of the Left, i.e., superior to the Minister of the Right).
Tokugawa Ietsuna had the rank of Shōnii (Second Rank, First Class) and was Udaijin.
Tokugawa Tsunayoshi had the rank of Shōnii and was Udaijin.
Tokugawa Ienobu had the rank of Shōnii was Nadaijin (Great Minister of the Center, i.e., inferior to the Minister of the Left).
Tokugawa Ietsugu had the rank of Shōnii was also Nadaijin.
Tokugawa Yoshimune held the rank of Shōnii and was Udaijin.
Tokugawa Ieshige also held the rank of Shōnii and was Udaijin.
Tokugawa Ieharu also held the rank of Shōnii and was Udaijin.
Tokugawa Ienari was Dainagon (Great Counselor).
Tokugawa Ieyoshi ....
Tokugawa Iesada ....
Tokugawa Iemochi ....

Geo-political sub-divisions

The country was divided into provinces called kuni (国), which were administered by governors (kokushi, 国司) appointed by the Daijō-kan. The provinces were then further divided into districts called gun (郡) or kōri, under district governors (gunji, 郡司) who were appointed by the local nobility. At the beginning of the eighth century there were 592 districts making up 66 provinces.

References

Asai T. (1985). Nyokan Tūkai. Tokyo: Kōdansha.
Ozaki, Yukio. (2001). The Autobiography of Ozaki Yukio: The Struggle for Constitutional Government in Japan. [Translated by Fujiko Hara]. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 10-ISBN 0-691-05095-3 (cloth)
Ozaki, Yukio. (1955). Ozak Gakudō Zenshū. Tokyo: Kōronsha.
Sansom, George (1958). A History of Japan to 1334. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0523-2
Sansom, George. (1952). Japan: A Short Cultural History. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 10-ISBN 0-804-70952-1; 13-ISBN 978-0-804-70952-1 (cloth) 10-ISBN 0-804-70954-8; 13-ISBN 978-0-804-70954-5 (paper)
Screech, Timon. (2006). Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779-1822. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-7007-1720-X
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon, tr. par M. Isaac Titsingh avec l'aide de plusieurs interprètes attachés au comptoir hollandais de Nangasaki; ouvrage re., complété et cor. sur l'original japonais-chinois, accompagné de notes et précédé d'un Aperçu d'histoire mythologique du Japon, par M. J. Klaproth. Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. ...Click link to digitized, full-text copy of this book (in French)
Ury, Marian. (1999). "Chinese Learning and Intellectual Life," The Cambridge history of Japan: Heian Japan. Vol. II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10-ISBN 0-521-22353-9; 13-ISBN 978-0-521-22353-9 (cloth)
Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4