digital-to-analog or D/A conversion, the process of changing discrete digital data into a continuously varying signal in relation to a standard or reference. There are two types of converters: electromechanical—also called shaft- or position-to-digital—and electronic. An example of electromechanical conversion is a positioning mechanism, such as a strip-chart recorder. The most common use of an electronic converter is to present the output of a digital computer as a graphic display (see computer graphics) or as audio output, as in computer-generated music. A modem, or data set, is a device that converts the digital signals produced by computers and terminals into analog signals that telephone circuits are designed to carry and then back to digital signals at the other end of the communication link. See also analog-to-digital conversion.

analog-to-digital or A/D conversion, the process of changing continuously varying data, such as voltage, current, or shaft rotation, into discrete digital quantities that represent the magnitude of the data compared to a standard or reference at the moment the conversion is made. There are two types of converters: electromechanical—also called shaft- or position-to-digital—and electronic. The most common use is to change analog signals into a form that can be manipulated by a digital computer, as in data communications; a modem, or data set, is a device that converts the digital signals produced by computers and terminals into analog signals that telephone circuits are designed to carry and then back to digital signals at the other end of the communication link. Similarly, in digital sound recording, audio signals are transformed into digital data, which are then recorded on a magnetic or optical disk or tape; the digitized data on the recording medium then must be changed back into the analog sound signals that can be used by a stereophonic sound system. See also digital-to-analog conversion.

Ribeirão Prěto, city (1996 pop. 452,804), São Paulo state, SE Brazil. The former "coffee capital" of Brazil, the city grew during the late 19th cent., with railroad construction and a large influx of Italian immigrants. During the 1930s coffee cultivation declined greatly, and the city became a processing center for a rich agricultural region producing chiefly sugarcane. Cotton and cereals are also grown, and cloth, cottonseed oil, food products, and alcoholic beverages are produced. Cattle breeding is also important. In recent years the coffee industry has been reviving.

Ouro Prěto [Port.,=black gold], city (1996 pop. 61,606), Minas Gerais state, E Brazil. Founded as Vila Rica in the gold rush near the end of the 17th cent., it became a prosperous 18th-century mining town, a cultural center, and the chief seat of the abortive move for independence led by Tiradentes. The city declined as the mines lost importance but remained the capital of Minas until 1897, when it was superseded by Belo Horizonte. Since 1933 the city has been a national historic site, preserving the 18th-century atmosphere of narrow, twisting, cobbled streets, the colonial mint and treasury, the old houses, the theater (oldest in South America), the governor's mansion, and the old churches, most notably the Church of São Francisco, decorated with the magnificent carvings of Aleijadinho. A mining school (est. 1875) is in Ouro Prěto, and mining (now for aluminum) remains important to the city's economy.

Matthew, Gospel according to, 1st book of the New Testament. Scholars conjecture that it was written for the church at Antioch toward the end of the 1st cent. Traditonally regarded as the earliest Gospel, it is now generally accepted that it postdates the Gospel of St. Mark and drew considerable material from it (see Synoptic Gospels). However, Matthew differs from the other Gospels in its narration of Jesus' birth, in the arrangement of the Sermon on the Mount, and in the length of the discourse on the end of the world. There are more allusions to the Old Testament in this Gospel than in the others; it was clearly written for Jewish Christians, the purpose being to prove that Jesus was the Messiah foretold in the Old Testament. Much of the book is devoted to his teaching. The Gospel can be divided into five sections: the origins of Jesus the Messiah; the first two years of his ministry in Galilee; his third year of ministry, including his rejection by religious opponents and his journey and stay in Jerusalem; the passion and resurrection; the instruction to the disciples to evangelize. The traditional ascription of the Gospel to St. Matthew, which dates from the 2d cent., is questioned by most scholars. See J. D. Kingsbury, Matthew (1975); G. Stanton, ed., The Interpretation of Matthew (1983).

Mark, Gospel according to, 2d book of the New Testament. The shortest of the four Gospels and probably the earliest, it is usually thought to have been composed shortly before the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. Tradition claims St. Mark as the author and St. Peter as the eyewitness authority who supplied much of his information. Because much of the material in Mark is found in the Gospels of St. Matthew and St. Luke, it is likely that Mark's Gospel was an important source for those later Gospels (see Synoptic Gospels). The Gospel of St. Mark may be divided into four sections: beginning of the ministry of Jesus; his first two years of preaching and healing in Galilee; his third year of ministry, including the journey to Jerusalem; the passion and resurrection. The earliest manuscripts of the Gospel conclude with the news of Christ's resurrection proclaimed at his open tomb; later manuscripts conclude with a longer passage in which the risen Jesus appears to some of his disciples. A large portion of the Gospels is devoted to the events of the week leading up to Christ's trial and crucifixion; they are foreshadowed earlier in the Gospel by Christ's three "passion predictions." Mark teaches that true discipleship comes from an appreciation not so much of Christ's miracles as of the service and suffering that characterize his ministry and messiahship. Jesus is presented as reluctant to disclose his true nature to those who lack the understanding that comes from insight into his suffering.

Luke, Gospel according to Saint, third book of the New Testament. It was composed in the second half of the 1st cent. Since the 2d cent. it and the Acts of the Apostles have been ascribed to St. Luke; Acts is sometimes considered a sequel to the Gospel. Apparent sources for the Gospel are the Gospel of St. Mark and a hypothetical source containing material on which the Gospel of St. Matthew also drew. Traditions peculiar to Luke would account for the Gospel's infancy narrative and several parables—of the prodigal son, the good Samaritan, the unjust judge, and the rich man and Lazarus. Luke emphasizes that the era of the church makes Christian salvation available to all, Jews and Gentiles alike. The Gospel might be divided into the following sections: prologue addressed to one Theophilus; infancy and life of Jesus before his public career; his ministry in Galilee; travel narrative; ministry in Jerusalem; Christ's passion and resurrection.

John, Gospel according to Saint, fourth book of the New Testament. This account of Jesus' life is clearly set off from the other three Gospels (see Synoptic Gospels), although it is probable that John knew and used both Mark and Luke as sources. The Gospel opens with a prologue in which Jesus is identified with the Word (see Logos). This term echoes usages of the Old Testament ("Word of God"), contemporary Jewish Wisdom speculation, and contemporary Hellenistic philosophy, and designates a figure that mediates between God and the cosmos. Hence "the Word was made flesh" is the classic formulation of the Incarnation. The Gospel is also concerned with the dualism of darkness and light, a theme found in the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Gospel falls into two main sections. The first narrates a series of selected events from Christ's ministry. Lengthy monologues, often polemical in tone, reveal his claim to divine status, underscored by his performance of "signs." In chapter 9, for example, he heals a blind man, who is then expelled from the synagogue for declaring Jesus a prophet. This has been interpreted as reflecting a dispute between Christians of 1st-century Palestine and Jews who denied Jesus' significance. Hence the Gospel's presentation of Jesus, who repudiates all religious tradition not founded on him and asserts that no one can have access to God the Father except through him. The second section of the Gospel consists of a long account of the Last Supper, followed by the Passion and the Resurrection. The traditional date of composition is c.A.D. 100; according to 20th-century scholarship it was composed probably between A.D. 95 and 115. Writers of the late 2d cent. ascribed the work to John, son of Zebedee, who according to tradition lived in Ephesus. However, it is unlikely that this John was the author. Most modern scholars agree that a brief passage in chapters 7 and 8 was not part of the Gospel as originally composed; otherwise the book is usually considered to have been written almost exactly as it stands. The influence of the Gospel of St. John in Christianity has been great. It is an early and articulated statement of Christ's unique position in Christian theology as God and man—a doctrine central to the dogmas of the Trinity, the Incarnation, and the Atonement.

Hebrews, Gospel according to the: see Pseudepigrapha.

Change to Win Federation, coalition of seven labor unions representing primarily American workers. It was founded in 2005 as the Change to Win Coalition by five American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations unions that had united to make changes in the AFL-CIO that were aimed at rebuilding the American labor movement. The original members were the Service Employees International Union (SEIU), Teamsters Union, Union of Needle and Industrial Textile Employees-Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees (Unite Here), Laborers' International Union of North America (LIUNA), and United Food and Commercial Workers International (UFCW). Failing in their reform efforts, these unions disaffiliated (2005) from the AFL-CIO, founded the new labor association, and were soon joined by the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners and the United Farm Workers. Change to Win's basic aim is to increase union membership by organizing workers. Headed by Anna Burger, the first woman to lead an American labor federation, it has more than 5.4 million members.

American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (A.S.P.C.A.), chartered in 1866 in New York by Henry Bergh to shelter homeless animals, to assist farmers in caring for their livestock, and to cooperate with law enforcement agencies in the prosecution of game-law violators. The A.S.P.C.A. is patterned on the English organization, the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, founded in 1824 through the efforts of Richard Martin (1754-1834), an Irish member of Parliament.

In the U.S., any state law forbidding various union-security measures, particularly the union shop, under which workers are required to join a union within a specified time after they begin employment. Supporters of such laws maintain that they are more equitable because they allow a person to choose whether or not to join a labour union. Opponents contend that the name right-to-work law is misleading because such laws do not guarantee employment to anyone. On the contrary, they maintain that such laws tend to reduce workers' job security by weakening the bargaining power of unions.

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Crime of inflicting physical or emotional injury on a child. The term can denote the use of inordinate physical violence or verbal abuse; the failure to furnish proper shelter, nourishment, medical treatment, or emotional support; incest, rape, or other instances of sexual molestation; and the making of child pornography. Child abuse can cause serious harm to its victims. Estimates of the numbers of children who suffer physical abuse or neglect by parents or guardians range from about 1 percent of all children to about 15 percent, and figures are far higher if emotional abuse and neglect are included. In many cases, the abuser himself suffered abuse as a child. When abuse results in death, evidence of child abuse or battered-child syndrome (e.g., broken bones and lesions, either healed or active) is often used to establish that death was not accidental.

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City (pop., 2003 est.: 1,386,372), west-central Honshu, Japan. It is situated northeast of Omacrsaka, and together with Kōbe it is part of a major urban-industrial region. The centre of Japanese culture and Japanese Buddhism, Kyōto (“Capital City”) was the capital of Japan and the site of the imperial family residence for more than 1,000 years (794–1868). The modern city has venues that present Nōh theatre and Kabuki. It is a manufacturing centre, and many small workshops produce textiles and porcelain; tourism is also important. Buddhist temples, Shintō shrines, and other historic buildings are found throughout the city and surrounding area; 17 of these were collectively designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1994. Its educational institutions include Kyōto University (founded 1897) and Dōshisha University (1875).

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