maser

Device that produces and amplifies electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range of the spectrum. The first maser was built in 1951 by Charles H. Townes. Its name is an acronym for “microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.” The wavelength produced by a maser is so constant and reproducible that it can be used to control a clock that will gain or lose no more than a second over hundreds of years. Masers have been used to amplify faint signals returned from radar and communications satellites, and have made it possible to measure faint radio waves emitted by Venus, giving an indication of the planet's temperature. The maser was the principal precursor of the laser.

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Device that produces an intense beam of coherent light (light composed of waves having a constant difference in phase). Its name, an acronym derived from “light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation,” describes how its beam is produced. The first laser, constructed in 1960 by Theodore Maiman (born 1927) based on earlier work by Charles H. Townes, used a rod of ruby. Light of a suitable wavelength from a flashlight excited (see excitation) the ruby atoms to higher energy levels. The excited atoms decayed swiftly to slightly lower energies (through phonon reactions) and then fell more slowly to the ground state, emitting light at a specific wavelength. The light tended to bounce back and forth between the polished ends of the rod, stimulating further emission. The laser has found valuable applications in microsurgery, compact-disc players, communications, and holography, as well as for drilling holes in hard materials, alignment in tunnel drilling, long-distance measurement, and mapping fine details.

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In optics, stimulated emission is the process by which an electron, perturbed by a photon having the correct energy, may drop to a lower energy level resulting in the creation of another photon. The perturbing photon is seemingly unchanged in the process (cf. absorption), and the second photon is created with the same phase, frequency, polarization, and direction of travel as the original. If the resultant photons are reflected so that they traverse the same atoms or gain medium repeatedly, a cascade effect is produced. Stimulated emission is really a quantum mechanical phenomenon but it can be understood in terms of a "classical" field and a quantum mechanical atom. The process can be thought of as "optical amplification" and it forms the basis of both the laser and maser.

Overview

Electrons and how they interact with each other and electromagnetic fields form the basis for most of our understanding of chemistry and physics. Electrons have energy in proportion to how far they are on average from the nucleus of an atom; however quantum mechanical effects force electrons to take on quantized positions in orbitals. Thus, electrons are found in specific energy levels of an atom, as shown below:
The Pauli exclusion principle forces some electrons to be farther from the nucleus than others, which is why all the electrons in an atom do not simply occupy the 1s orbital. When electrons absorb energy either from light (photons) or from heat (phonons), they move farther away from the atomic nuclei but they are only allowed to absorb energy that will land them into specific energy levels. This leads to emission lines and absorption lines.

When an electron is excited, it will not stay that way forever. On average there is a half-life for any particular energy level after which half of the electrons initially in that state will have decayed into a lower state. When such a decay occurs, the energy difference between the level the electron was at and the new level must be released either as a photon or a phonon. When an electron decays due to "timeout" it is said to be due to "spontaneous emission." The phase associated with the photon that is emitted is random and has to do with some quantum mechanical ideas concerning the atom's internal state. If a bunch of electrons were put into an excited state somehow and then left to relax, the resulting radiation would be very spectrally limited (only one wavelength of light would be present) but the individual photons would not be in phase with one another. This is also called fluorescence.

Other photons (i.e. an external electromagnetic field) will affect an atom's state. The quantum mechanical variables mentioned above are changed. Specifically the atom will act like a small electric dipole which will oscillate with the external field. One of the consequences of this oscillation is it encourages electrons to decay to the lower energy state. When it does this due to the presence of other photons, the released photon is in phase with the other photons and in the same direction as the other photons. This is known as stimulated emission.

Stimulated emission can be modelled mathematically by considering an atom which may be in one of two electronic energy states, the ground state (1) and the excited state (2), with energies E₁ and E₂ respectively.

If the atom is in the excited state, it may decay into the ground state by the process of spontaneous emission, releasing the difference in energies between the two states as a photon. The photon will have frequency ν and energy hν, given by:

$E\_2\; -\; E\_1\; =\; h\; nu$,

where h is Planck's constant.

Alternatively, if the excited-state atom is perturbed by the electric field of a photon with frequency ν, it may release a second photon of the same frequency, in phase with the first photon. The atom will again decay into the ground state. This process is known as stimulated emission.

In a group of such atoms, if the number of atoms in the excited state is given by N, the rate at which stimulated emission occurs is given by:

$frac\{partial\; N\}\{partial\; t\}\; =\; -\; B\_\{21\}\; rho\; (nu)\; N$,

where B₂₁ is a proportionality constant for this particular transition in this particular atom (referred to as an Einstein B coefficient), and ρ(ν) is the radiation density of photons of frequency ν. The rate of emission is thus proportional to the number of atoms in the excited state, N, and the density of the perturbing photons.

The critical detail of stimulated emission is that the emitted photon is identical to the stimulating photon in that it has the same frequency, phase, polarization, and direction of propagation. The two photons, as a result, are totally coherent. It is this property that allows optical amplification to take place.

Although most directly related to the discussion of how lasers work, stimulated emission touches on some of the most basic concepts in physics and the interaction of light and matter. It is a very important topic, and key to the understanding of optics specifically and physics in general.

For various reasons, the frequencies of the various photons emitted will not be exactly the same. For example, since the individual atoms in a laser medium are typically at some finite temperature, the Doppler effect will cause the photon wavelengths to vary from atom to atom (although the actual mechanism involved is more complex because of the more complex relationship between relative wavelength of stimulating photon and emitted photon). The spectrum of the photons, then, will not be an infinitesimally thin line, but will be a distribution. This distribution in the spectrum of emitted photons is called "line shape".

Although there are many possible line shapes, it is common to model the spectral line shape function as a Lorentzian distribution:

$g(nu)\; =\; \{1\; over\; pi\; \}\; \{\; (Gamma\; /\; 2)\; over\; (nu\; -\; nu\_0)^2\; +\; (Gamma\; /2\; )^2\; \}$

where

$Gamma\; ,$ is the full width at half maximum, or FWHM, in hertz.

This model is generally valid as long as

and

The line shape function, regardless of the form that it takes, must satisfy the normalization condition of any probability distribution:

$int\_\{-infty\}^\{infty\}\; g(nu)\; cdot\; d\; nu\; =\; 1$

which the Lorentzian satisfies.

The peak value of the Lorentzian line shape occurs at the line center:

$g(nu\; =\; nu\_0)\; =\; \{2\; over\; pi\; Gamma\}$

It is also convenient to define the normalized line shape function:

$bar\{g\}(nu)\; =\; \{\; g(nu)\; over\; g(nu\_0)\; \}\; =\; \{\; (Gamma\; /\; 2)^2\; over\; (nu\; -\; nu\_0)^2\; +\; (Gamma\; /2\; )^2\; \}$

which is dimensionless, and which has a peak value, also at the line center, of

$bar\{g\}(nu\; =\; nu\_0)\; =\; 1$

Stimulated emission cross section

The stimulated emission cross section (in square meters) is

$sigma\_\{21\}(nu)\; =\; A\_\{21\}\; \{\; lambda^2\; over\; 8\; pi\; n^2\}\; g(nu)$

where

A₂₁ is the Einstein A coefficient (in radians per second),

λ is the wavelength (in meters),

n is the refractive index of the medium (dimensionless), and

g(ν) is the spectral line shape function (in seconds).

Optical amplification

Under certain conditions, stimulated emission can provide a physical mechanism for optical amplification. An external source of energy stimulates atoms in the ground state to transition to the excited state, creating what is called a population inversion. When light of the appropriate frequency passes through the inverted medium, the photons stimulate the excited atoms to emit additional photons of the same frequency, phase, and direction, resulting in an amplification of the input intensity.

The population inversion, in units of atoms per cubic meter, is

$Delta\; N\_\{21\}\; =\; left(N\_2\; -\; \{g\_2\; over\; g\_1\}\; N\_1\; right)$

where g₁ and g₂ are the degeneracies of energy levels 1 and 2, respectively.

Small signal gain equation

The intensity (in watts per square meter) of the stimulated emission is governed by the following differential equation:

$\{\; dI\; over\; dz\}\; =\; sigma\_\{21\}(nu)\; cdot\; Delta\; N\_\{21\}\; cdot\; I(z)$

as long as the intensity I(z) is small enough so that it does not have a significant effect on the magnitude of the population inversion. Grouping the first two factors together, this equation simplifies as

$\{\; dI\; over\; dz\}\; =\; gamma\_0(nu)\; cdot\; I(z)$

where

$gamma\_0(nu)\; =\; sigma\_\{21\}(nu)\; cdot\; Delta\; N\_\{21\}$

is the small-signal gain coefficient (in units of radians per meter). We can solve the differential equation using separation of variables:

$\{\; dI\; over\; I(z)\}\; =\; gamma\_0(nu)\; cdot\; dz$

Integrating, we find:

$ln\; left(\{I(z)\; over\; I\_\{in\}\}\; right)\; =\; gamma\_0(nu)\; cdot\; z$

or

$I(z)\; =\; I\_\{in\}e^\{gamma\_0(nu)\; z\}$

where

$I\_\{in\}\; =\; I(z=0)\; ,$ is the optical intensity of the input signal (in watts per square meter).

Saturation intensity

The saturation intensity I_S is defined as the input intensity at which the gain of the optical amplifier drops to exactly half of the small-signal gain. We can compute the saturation intensity as

$I\_S\; =\; \{h\; nu\; over\; sigma(nu)\; cdot\; tau\_S\; \}$

where

h is Planck's constant, and

τ_S is the saturation time constant, which depends on the spontaneous emission lifetimes of the various transitions between the energy levels related to the amplification.

General gain equation

The general form of the gain equation, which applies regardless of the input intensity, derives from the general differential equation for the intensity I as a function of position z in the gain medium:

$\{\; dI\; over\; dz\}\; =\; \{\; gamma\_0(nu)\; over\; 1\; +\; bar\{g\}(nu)\; \{\; I(z)\; over\; I\_S\; \}\; \}\; cdot\; I(z)$

where $I\_S$ is intensity. To solve, we first rearrange the equation in order to separate the variables, intensity I and position z:

$\{\; dI\; over\; I(z)\}\; left[1\; +\; bar\{g\}(nu)\; \{\; I(z)\; over\; I\_S\; \}\; right]\; =\; gamma\_0(nu)cdot\; dz$

Integrating both sides, we obtain

$ln\; left(\{\; I(z)\; over\; I\_\{in\}\; \}\; right)\; +\; bar\{g\}(nu)\; \{\; I(z)\; -\; I\_\{in\}\; over\; I\_S\}\; =\; gamma\_0(nu)\; cdot\; z$

or

$ln\; left(\{\; I(z)\; over\; I\_\{in\}\; \}\; right)\; +\; bar\{g\}(nu)\; \{\; I\_\{in\}\; over\; I\_S\; \}\; left(\{\; I(z)\; over\; I\_\{in\}\; \}\; -\; 1\; right)\; =\; gamma\_0(nu)\; cdot\; z$

The gain G of the amplifier is defined as the optical intensity I at position z divided by the input intensity:

$G\; =\; G(z)\; =\; \{\; I(z)\; over\; I\_\{in\}\; \}$

Substituting this definition into the prior equation, we find the general gain equation:

$ln\; left(G\; right)\; +\; bar\{g\}(nu)\; \{\; I\_\{in\}\; over\; I\_S\; \}\; left(G\; -\; 1\; right)\; =\; gamma\_0(nu)\; cdot\; z$

Small signal approximation

In the special case where the input signal is small compared to the saturation intensity, in other words,

then the general gain equation gives the small signal gain as

$ln(G)\; =\; ln(G\_0)\; =\; gamma\_0(nu)\; cdot\; z$

or

$G\; =\; G\_0\; =\; e^\{gamma\_0(nu)\; z\}$

which is identical to the small signal gain equation (see above).

Large signal asymptotic behavior

For large input signals, where

$I\_\{in\}\; >>\; I\_S\; ,$

the gain approaches unity

$G\; rightarrow\; 1$

and the general gain equation approaches a linear asymptote:

$I(z)\; =\; I\_\{in\}\; +\; \{\; gamma\_0(nu)\; cdot\; z\; over\; bar\{g\}(nu)\; \}\; I\_S$

References

• Saleh, Bahaa E. A. and Teich, Malvin Carl (1991). Fundamentals of Photonics. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-83965-5.

See also

• Absorption
• Spontaneous emission
• Active laser medium
• Laser science
• Rabi cycle