pluralism, in philosophy, theory that considers the universe explicable in terms of many principles or composed of many ultimate substances. It describes no particular system and may be embodied in such opposed philosophical concepts as materialism and idealism. Empedocles, G. W. von Leibniz, William James, and Bertrand Russell are among the philosophers generally considered as pluralistic. See also monism and dualism.

In political science, the view that in liberal democracies power is (or should be) dispersed among a variety of economic and ideological pressure groups and is not (or should not be) held by a single elite or group of elites. Pluralism assumes that diversity is beneficial to society and that the disparate functional or cultural groups of which society is composed—including religious groups, trade unions, professional organizations, and ethnic minorities—should be autonomous. Pluralism was stressed most vigorously during the early 20th century by a group of English writers that included Frederic W. Maitland and Harold J. Laski; it was defended in the later 20th century by the American scholars Robert Dahl and David B. Truman.

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Pluralism is used, often in different ways, across a wide range of topics to denote a diversity of views, and stands in opposition to one single approach or method of interpretation:

• Scientific pluralism, the view that some phenomena observed in science require multiple explanations to account for their nature, and hence the denial that there is one unified scientific method
• Methodological pluralism, the view that some phenomena observed in science and social science require multiple methods to account for their nature
• Pluralism (political philosophy), the acknowledgment of a diversity of political systems
• Pluralism (political theory), holds that political power in society does not lie with the electorate but is distributed among a wide number of groups
• Pluralism (philosophy), entirely unrelated positions in metaphysics and epistemology
• Value pluralism, the idea that there are several values which may be equally correct and fundamental, and yet in conflict with each other
• Cosmic pluralism, the belief in numerous other worlds beyond the Earth, which may possess the conditions suitable for life
• Religious pluralism, a term used to describe the acceptance of all religious paths as equally valid, promoting coexistence
• Cultural pluralism, when small groups within a larger society maintain their unique cultural identities (see Multiculturalism)
• Economic pluralism, the diversity of economic methods including capitalism, cooperatives and laissez faire
• Legal pluralism, acknowledges the existence of differing legal systems in the world
• In art, accepting as valid the wide diversity in artistic styles and methods, e.g. the art of the current period where every style is practiced, characterizing late 20th and early 21st century Contemporary art
• In the sense of holding multiple ecclesiastical offices, see benefice
• Pluralist School, a Greek school of pre-Socratic philosophers composed by the great Greek Gods, Miki, Noki and Bsus

See also

• Global Centre for Pluralism, an international centre for research, education and exchange, based in Ottawa, Canada.
• Multiculturalism
• Post-modernism