Valdivia, Pedro de, c.1500-1554, Spanish conquistador, conqueror of Chile. One of Francisco Pizarro's best officers in the conquest of Peru, educated, energetic, somewhat less cruel and avaricious than his fellow conquerors, Valdivia obtained permission from Pizarro to subdue Chile. In Jan., 1540, he began his march south through the Atacama Desert, following the route used by his unfortunate predecessor, Diego de Almagro. Although Santiago was founded in 1541 and other settlements in the next few years, the colony was not prosperous; gold was scarce and the Araucanians warlike. To secure additional aid and confirm his claims to the conquered territory, Valdivia returned in 1547 to Peru, where he supported the viceroy, Pedro de la Gasca, against the rebellion of Gonzalo Pizarro. He received the title of governor of Chile and returned to his domain in 1549, continuing his march S to the Bío-Bío River, where he founded Concepción, and farther S to Valdivia (1552). Ostensibly the conquest was complete. Toward the end of 1553, however, the Araucanians under Lautaro revolted. Valdivia, sallying forth with 40 men to stamp out the rebellion, was ambushed. As each successive wave of attackers was wiped out or beaten off, Lautaro sent another, until the entire company, including Valdivia, was massacred.

Teixeira, Pedro, d. 1640, Portuguese explorer, one of the early voyagers on the Amazon. He commanded the expedition sent by the governor of Maranhão up the Amazon in the autumn of 1637. He reached the upper Amazon early in 1638, discovering the Rio Negro, and in July he met an expedition under Pedro de Costa Favilla on the Napo. Later he reached Quito, then returned down the Amazon. He was accompanied on this return journey by the Jesuit priest Cristóbal de Acuña, who wrote an account of the voyage. He claimed the Napo for Portugal, at that time united with Spain through the king, Philip IV of Spain (Philip III of Portugal).

Santana, Pedro, 1801-64, president of the Dominican Republic (1844-48, 1853-56, 1858-61). He joined the revolution that in 1844 freed his nation from Haiti and became its first president. He and his bitter rival, Buenaventura Báez, alternated in power. Santana was unscrupulous and dictatorial. He repulsed later Haitian attacks, but the republic did not fare well under his repressive rule. Convinced that security was possible only with foreign protection, Santana in 1861 placed his country again under Spanish rule, converting it into an overseas province of which he became governor. Intense opposition forced him to resign.

San Pedro, Diego de, fl. 1450, Spanish writer. He is best known for two sentimental novels that influenced the later development of the Spanish novel. They are Tratado de amores de Arnalte y Lucena [treatise on the loves of Arnalte and Lucena] (1491) and Cárcel de amor [prison of love] (1492).

San Pedro de Macorís, city (1993 pop. 123,987), SE Dominican Republic, on the Caribbean Sea at the mouth of the Higuamo River. It is the nation's leading sugar port. Textiles and alcohol are produced there.

San Pedro Sula, city (1997 est. pop. 417,000), capital of Cortés dept., NW Honduras. It is the second largest city in the country. San Pedro Sula and Puerto Cortés are the principal ports of Honduras and serve the northwestern banana and sugar plantations. San Pedro Sula is the major industrial and commercial city of Honduras, with a wide variety of light industries. The city was significantly damaged by hurricanes in 1974 and 1998.

Queiros, Pedro Fernandes de, c.1560-1614, Portuguese navigator. In Spanish service, he sailed (1595) as second in command of the expedition of Alvaro de Mendaña de Neira to the Pacific. The expedition traveled to the Marquesas Islands and Solomon Islands, and after the death of Mendaña, Queiros continued in command. On a later expedition he visited (1606) the Tuamotu Archipelago and the New Hebrides, but almost certainly not the Society Islands (as is sometimes claimed).

Páez, Pedro, 1564-1622, Spanish Jesuit missionary. He preached in Goa, India, was enslaved for seven years in Sana, Yemen, and in 1603 arrived in Ethiopia. He rapidly learned Amharic and converted the Ethiopian royal family from Coptic Christianity to Roman Catholicism.

Peralta Barnuevo, Pedro de, 1664-1743, Peruvian writer. Although his major literary interests were drama and poetry, he also wrote on astronomy, mathematics, and history. His play La rodoguna (1710) shows the influence of Corneille. Other works are Triunfos de amor y poder [triumphs of love and power] (1711), a play in the Baroque tradition; and Lima fundada o conquista del Perú [the founding of Lima or conquest of Peru] (1732).

Pedro II (Dom Pedro II de Alcântara), 1825-91, emperor of Brazil (1831-89). At the age of five, he succeeded under a regency when his father, Pedro I, abdicated. He was declared of age in 1840. Pedro II's long reign was characterized by great social change, material progress, and wars with neighboring nations. Brazil aided Justo José de Urquiza in the war (1851-52) against Juan Manuel de Rosas, at the same time intervening in Uruguayan affairs in support of Venancio Flores. Later, Brazil joined Argentina and Uruguay in the War of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay (1865-70). Pedro II was extremely popular, but the economic and social tendencies of his time betrayed him. In 1850 the slave trade was prohibited; in 1871 a law was passed providing for gradual emancipation; and, in 1888, when Pedro was in Europe, a law abolishing slavery was signed by his daughter Isabel. Brazil's modernization led to widening divisions between the feudalistic countryside and the rapidly growing urban populations and newer export sectors. A coalition of the urban middle class, coffee planters, and the military increasingly disparaged the monarchy and its ties to the traditional landed class. They advocated the creation of a modern republic that would support the new coffee and industrial capitalism, finding additional allies in the church. Discontent became widespread, and the military, representing this diverse opposition, overturned the empire. The revolution was led by Manuel Deodoro da Fonseca. Pedro was exiled, and spent the remainder of his life in Europe.

Pedro I (Dom Pedro de Alcântara), 1798-1834, first emperor of Brazil (1822-31); son of John VI of Portugal. Dom Pedro was a child when the Portuguese royal family, fleeing from Napoleon's conquering French army, left Portugal for Brazil. He grew up in Rio de Janeiro, and when King John returned (1821) to Portugal, Dom Pedro remained as regent in Brazil. Attempts by the Portuguese to reduce the Brazilian colony once again to subordinate status sparked opposition. Heeding his Brazilian advisers, especially José Bonifácio, Pedro defied the government in Lisbon. On Sept. 7, 1822, he issued the Grito do Ipiranga, which declared Brazil a separate empire. In 1824, he granted Brazil its first constitution. The United States recognized the new empire the same year, and the Portuguese soon followed. Brazilian independence was thus won without the bloodshed that marked the Spanish-American independence movements. Dom Pedro's popularity, however, was soon undermined by his humiliating war with Argentina, which cost Brazil the Cisplatine Province (Uruguay), by his notorious private life, and by his preoccupation with Portuguese affairs. When John VI died in 1826, Dom Pedro was recognized as Peter IV of Portugal. However, he conceded the Portuguese crown to his daughter, Maria II, on condition that she marry her uncle Dom Miguel, and that Dom Miguel accept a constitutional charter for Portugal. Dom Miguel agreed, but in 1828 seized the rule for himself and set up an absolute regime. Meanwhile, the problems in Brazil led Dom Pedro to abdicate (1831) in favor of his son, Pedro II. He left for Europe, joined the Portuguese liberals entrenched in the Azores, and proceeded to Oporto in 1832, with a small fleet. In the Miguelist Wars, an English sea force fighting for Dom Pedro and Maria II defeated the Miguelist fleet, and Maria was restored to the throne. Dom Pedro died in the same year.

Pedro. For Spanish and Portuguese rulers thus named, use Peter.

Oña, Pedro de, 1570?-1643, Chilean poet. Having been born in Latin America, he is considered Chile's first national poet. His poetry is both epic and religious. Inspired by La aravcana, by Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga, he wrote the epic Arauco domado (1596; tr. Arauco Tamed, 1948). Other works include El vasauro (1635), a religious poem, and El Ignacio de Cantabria (1639), a pious work celebrating St. Ignatius of Loyola.

Osuna, Pedro Téllez Girón, duque de, 1579-1624, Spanish general and administrator. As viceroy of Sicily (1611-16) and of Naples (1616-20), he arrogated power to himself and fought the Ottomans and Barbary pirates. In 1617, suspecting Venetian anti-Spanish activities, he defeated a Venetian fleet in the Adriatic. In 1618 the Venetians accused him of plotting to overthrow the Venetian republic and Osuna was recalled (1620) to Spain and imprisoned (1621). Historians disagree on whether there was an actual conspiracy.

Nunes, Pedro, Lat. Petrus Nonius, 1502-1578, Portuguese mathematician, geographer, and writer on navigation and geometry. He was the first (1534) to demonstrate an instrument for measuring angles and was the reputed inventor of the rhumb line. He became royal cosmographer in 1529. From 1544 to 1562 he was professor of mathematics at Coimbra. Two of his works are De crepusculis (1542) and De arte atque ratione navigandi (1546).

Montt, Pedro, 1848-1910, president of Chile (1906-10). Son of Manuel Montt, he held with distinction several government posts. He was a minister under José Balmaceda but later joined Jorge Montt, a distant relative, in the overthrow of Balmaceda. Elected president in the hope that his energy and prestige would bring moral regeneration to Chile, he was hampered by disruptive social forces and political corruption. He died in office.

Menéndez de Avilés, Pedro, 1519-74, Spanish naval officer and colonizer, founder of Saint Augustine, Fla. He went to sea as a youth and so distinguished himself that by the time he was 35 he held the captain generalcy of the Indies fleet, which convoyed treasure ships from the New World to Spain. In 1565, Philip II of Spain charged him with driving the French Huguenots from Fort Caroline and establishing a Spanish colony in Florida. Menéndez's expedition of 11 ships and 500 colonists sailed from Spain and on Aug. 28 entered the harbor he named for St. Augustine. At the mouth of the St. Johns River on Sept. 4 he encountered a French fleet under Jean Ribaut, which he was unable to bring to combat. Menéndez then returned to St. Augustine, where he began to build a fort. Ribaut, hoping to take the Spanish by surprise, sailed to attack them, but his fleet was wrecked in a storm. With Fort Caroline virtually defenseless, Menéndez marched overland and on Sept. 21 killed most of the French there. Ribaut and his men, driven ashore S of St. Augustine, were captured as they tried to reach Fort Caroline by land, and all but a few were slain. The massacres, which aroused France, were later (1568) avenged by Dominique de Gourgues. Part of his mission accomplished, Menéndez went to Cuba for supplies and then explored the Gulf Coast, where he made friendly contacts with the indigenous peoples. Before he returned to Spain (1567) there were Spanish posts on St. Helena Island (S.C.) and on Chesapeake Bay in addition to St. Augustine and San Mateo (Fort Caroline). Although he remained governor of Florida until his death, Menéndez returned only for a brief stay in 1571. The establishment of the Florida colony was due almost wholly to his energy and ability.

Mendoza, Pedro de, b. 1501 or 1502, d. 1537, Spanish conquistador, first adelantado [civil and military governor] of Río de la Plata (present-day Argentina). After a military career in Europe, he received (1534) from Emperor Charles V a commission to conquer and colonize the Río de la Plata region. With 11 vessels and 1,200 men, he sailed from Sanlúcar de Barrameda in 1535. He reached the estuary of the Río de la Plata in January and founded Buenos Aires in 1536. Attacks by the indigenous people, scarcity of food, and various disasters made the site untenable. Leaving Juan de Ayolas in charge, Mendoza sailed for Spain in 1537 and died at sea. Buenos Aires was abandoned in 1541, by order of Domingo Martínez de Irala, and the colonists moved to Asunción.

Mendoza, Pedro González de, 1428-95, Spanish cardinal and archbishop of Toledo. He was the son of the poet Iñigo López de Mendoza, marqués de Santillana. He supported Henry IV of Castile in his struggles against the nobles and later sided with Isabella I against Juana la Beltraneja. More a soldier than a prelate, he fought in the battle of Toro (1476) against the Portuguese and later took part in the conquest of Granada. He also cultivated literature and wrote religious and political works.

López de Ayala, Pedro, 1332-1407, Spanish statesman, poet, and chronicler. As a royal official in Castile, he served Peter the Cruel, Henry II, John I, and Henry III, rising to become chancellor of Castile (1398-1407). He is best known for his chronicle of the reigns of the four kings he served; avoiding the fantastic interpretations of earlier historians, he wrote with accuracy and realism. His Cronicas is one of the earliest and useful histories of Spain. He also wrote a satiric poem, Rimado de Palacio, on the social and political problems of his era, and translated Livy, Boccaccio, and others.

Luna, Pedro de, 1328?-1423?, Aragonese churchman, antipope (1394-1417) with the name Benedict XIII. He was a doctor of canon law and as cardinal (1375) became an outstanding member of the Curia Romana. He supported the election of Urban VI, but later switched his allegiance to Robert of Geneva, who, as Antipope Clement VII, launched the Great Schism (see Schism, Great). As Robert's legate in Spain, Cardinal de Luna secured the adherence of his country to the Avignon obedience. On Robert's death, the cardinals at Avignon elected Cardinal de Luna, having first elicited his promise to abdicate should that be necessary to bring an end to the schism. As Benedict XIII, the new antipope proved himself the most able of all of the popes and antipopes of the period. He showed himself unwilling, however, to negotiate an end to the schism. His outright refusal to abdicate at the Council of Pisa (see Pisa, Council of) only made matters worse, and Benedict lost all his obedience but Scotland, Sicily, Castile, and Aragón. The Council of Constance (see Constance, Council of) moved Benedict to even greater intransigence. The council deposed him in 1417. Benedict, forsaken by all but his household, lived on in his fortress at Peñiscola (near Valencia), claiming to be the rightful pope until his death.

Justo, Agustín Pedro, 1876-1943, president of Argentina (1932-38). An army general, he rose to prominence (1922) as minister of war under Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear and later participated in the conservative revolution that overthrew Hipólito Irigoyen (1930). As president he became a leading exponent of Pan-Americanism and the League of Nations; together with his foreign minister, Carlos Saavedra Lamas, he was instrumental in ending the Chaco War. In World War II, Justo supported the Allied cause and was, in the face of much pro-Axis sentiment in Argentine political circles, the chief advocate of the United Nations in Argentina. When Brazil declared war on the Axis he requested and received the rank of honorary general in the Brazilian army.

Gasca, Pedro de la, c.1485-1567?, Spanish colonial administrator. A priest as well as a lawyer, he was selected by Charles V to end the anarchy prevailing in Peru. He arrived in 1547 after the death of the viceroy Blasco Núñez Vela. Tactful, judicious, but unyielding, he wisely offered pardon to all and repealed the New Laws of Bartolomé de Las Casas before mustering his forces and entering the field against Gonzalo Pizarro, whom he defeated in 1548 and ordered executed. He restored some semblance of order to Peru, but his methods were always strictly expedient. After his return to Spain in 1550 he was made bishop of Siguenza and Palencia.

Fages, Pedro, fl. 1767-96, Spanish governor of Alta California (1782-91). In Mexico in 1767, he was ordered to accompany the expedition of Gaspar de Portolá, which established (1770) the mission at Monterey, where he became commandant. Later that year he led a small party to explore the east coast of San Francisco Bay. Friction developed at Monterey between Fages and Father Junípero Serra, and Fages was recalled (1774), but he returned in 1782 as governor. His administration was notable for its encouragement of colonization, agriculture, and missionary work. His diaries, The Colorado River Campaign (tr. 1913), The Expedition to San Francisco Bay in 1770 (tr. 1911) and A Historical, Political and Natural Description of California (tr. 1937), are valuable source materials for the history of the period.

Cieza de León, Pedro, 1518?-1560, Spanish soldier and explorer in South America. His Chronicle of Peru is one of the most richly detailed accounts of the Spanish conquest.

Campomanes, Pedro Rodríguez de, conde de Campomanes, 1723-1802, Spanish statesman, economist, and author. As president of the council of Castile under Charles III and briefly under Charles IV, he introduced administrative, social, and economic reforms. He wrote on the revival of industry and on the professional education of the working classes. In his most important essays he analyzed many of the laws and ordinances and attempted to trace the influence of Spanish legislation, hoping to revitalize national commerce. He was of the main political figures of the Spanish Enlightenment.

Campaña, Pedro: see Kempener, Pieter de.

Calderón de la Barca, Pedro, 1600-1681, Spanish dramatist, last important figure of the Spanish Golden Age, b. Madrid. Educated at a Jesuit school and the Univ. of Salamanca, he turned from theology to poetry and became a court poet in 1622. His more than 100 plays were carefully contrived, subtle, and rhetorical. The earlier plays, of the cloak-and-dagger school, include La dama duende [the lady fairy] and Casa con dos puertas mala es de guardar [the house with two doors is difficult to guard]. His finest work is in his more than 70 autos sacramentales (one-act religious plays), among them El divino Orfeo and A Dios por razón de estado [to God for reasons of state]. Of his philosophical dramas the best known are El mágico prodigioso [the wonderful magician] and La vida es sueño [life is a dream], which deals with the themes of fate, prognostication, and free will. Calderón took holy orders in 1651 and thereafter wrote few plays except the autos, of which he supplied two a year for the Corpus Christi festival.

Cabral, Pedro Alvares, c.1467-c.1520, Portuguese navigator. A friend of Vasco da Gama, in 1500 he was sent out by Manuel I as head of a fleet destined for India. Bartolomeu Dias was one of his officers. Cabral went far west of his course and reached the coast of Brazil, which he claimed for Portugal. Proceeding onward, he reached Madagascar, Mozambique, and the Indian coast. At Calicut, trouble arose over establishing a post for trade and for converting the Muslims. He bombarded the city but had to retreat in order to save his East Indian cargo. The ships returned to Portugal with rich cargoes, but his methods of diplomacy were severely criticized. The old story was that Cabral discovered Brazil because he had been driven off his course by storms. This has been questioned, and it has been urged that even before the Spaniard Vicente Yáñez Pinzón saw the Brazilian coast (Jan., 1500), Portuguese navigators had been there and that Portugal, wishing to obtain the land, had managed to secure a revision of the pope's original demarcation of the world into Spanish and Portuguese zones of exploration. Certainly the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) adjusted the former line and put Brazil in the Portuguese zone, but the issue is still a subject of debate.

Ayala, Pedro López de: see López de Ayala.

Arias de Ávila, Pedro, known as Pedrarias, c.1440-1531, Spanish colonial administrator. He was sent (1514) as governor to Darién (now part of Panama), then under the rule of Vasco Núñez de Balboa. A long quarrel between the two ended with Balboa's execution. Pedrarias's administration was notoriously harsh and cruel, but he extended the Spanish dominions and founded (1519) Panama City; he first aided, but later hindered, Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro in their conquest of Peru. His name also appears as Pedrarias Dávila.

Aranda, Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, conde de, 1718-98, Spanish statesman. He distinguished himself at first as a military commander, serving as director-general of artillery and captain general of Valencia and later of Aragón. His aristocratic background and advocacy of enlightened despotism made him ideally suited to play a reforming role in the administration of Charles III. In 1766 he became president of the council of Castile, a position he held with considerable distinction until 1773 when he was dismissed because of his failure to hold the Falkland Islands for Spain. Ambassador to France (1773-87), he was one of the signatories to the Treaty of Paris (1783), which recognized the independence of the United States. Under Charles IV he served briefly as foreign minister (1792), but fell into disfavor because of disapproval of war with France following the French invasion of Spain in 1794. He was one of the main luminaries of the Spanish Enlightenment.

Aramburu, Pedro Eugenio, 1903-70, president of Argentina (1955-58). An army general, he participated in the overthrow of Juan Perón in Sept., 1955, and that November he replaced Gen. Eduardo Lonardi as provisional president. With the vice president, Admiral Isaac Rojas, he ruled by decree, suppressing strikes and revolts and vigorously driving the Peronists from business, government, and military posts. He later returned the country to constitutional democracy and scheduled free elections, in which he ruled out military figures (including himself) as presidential candidates. After Arturo Frondizi was elected president in Feb., 1958, Aramburu retired from the army. He ran unsuccessfully for president in 1963. In May, 1970, he was kidnapped by a Peronist guerrilla group and murdered, allegedly for his part in the execution of 27 Peronist leaders after an unsuccessful coup attempt in 1956.

Alvarado, Pedro de, 1486-1541, Spanish conquistador. He went to Hispaniola (1510), sailed in the expedition (1518) of Juan de Grijalva, and was the chief lieutenant of Hernán Cortés in the conquest of Mexico. He commanded at Tenochtitlán in the absence of Cortés, and his brutality provoked a brief native rebellion. Sent out by Cortés in 1523, he conquered Guatemala and Salvador. He was governor of Guatemala until his death. He met with much opposition from the audiencia in Mexico, but strengthening his power on two voyages to Spain (1527-28, 1536-39), he exercised absolute control. He founded many cities and developed the colony. An expedition to Ecuador (1534-35), made in an attempt to share in the booty Francisco Pizarro was taking from the Incan empire, ended in defeat. In 1540, Alvarado, sailing for the Moluccas, stopped in Mexico. While there he was influenced by the viceroy Antonio de Mendoza and by the tales of Marcos de Niza to begin a search for the fabled Cibola. When the indigenous people of Nueva Galicia unexpectedly revolted in 1541, Alvarado took part against them in the Mixtón War. He led a foolhardy attack and was accidentally killed in the subsequent retreat. Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo took command of the maritime expedition. Alvarado's wife, Doña Beatriz de la Cueva, succeeded him as governor of Guatemala. His letters concerning the conquest of Guatemala have been published.

Almodóvar, Pedro, 1951-, Spanish film director. Almodóvar began to make films in the mid-1970s and released his first feature, Pepi, Luci, Bon y otras chicas del montón, in 1980. In post-Franco Spain's cultural freedom, Almodóvar became popular for his blackly comic yet joyous visions of human entanglements and the wilder shores of sexuality. Such outrageously satirical sociosexual comedies as Dark Habits (1983), Matador (1986), Law of Desire (1987), Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown (1988), Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down! (1989), and Kika (1993) flouted the taboos of conventional Spanish society. Saturated with vivid color and extravagant emotion, these works typically center around strong, cunning, glamorous, and compelling women while often also featuring such characters as transsexuals, drag queens, porn stars, and addicts. A change of tone entered Aldomóvar's work with The Flower of My Secret (1995). He turned away from the extremes of campy parody to concentrate on a more open and somewhat mournful emotionalism in which sorrow can be transformed, largely by the power of art, into tenderness and beauty. Among his later films are All about My Mother (1999), winner of the Cannes best director award and the Academy Award for best foreign film, two male-centered works, Talk to Her (2002) and the noir-inflected Bad Education (2004), and the decidedly female-centered Volver (2006). He has written the screenplays for many of his films.

Albizu Campos, Pedro, 1891-1965, Puerto Rican political leader. After service in an African-American unit during World War I he developed a lasting enmity for the United States and became the fiery champion of Puerto Rican independence. His Nationalist party, however, failed to receive popular support in the Puerto Rican elections of 1932. Convicted of seeking to overthrow the U.S. government, he was imprisoned (1937-43) before returning to Puerto Rico in 1947. His party made a poor showing in the 1948 election, and in 1950 Nationalists attacked the governor's mansion in Puerto Rico and Blair House in Washington. Charged with inciting to murder, Albizu Campos was again imprisoned. He was pardoned (1953) because of failing health, but the next year he was implicated in the Nationalist armed attack on the U.S. House of Representatives, and his pardon was revoked. He was sentenced to life imprisonment. He suffered a stroke in 1956 and was again pardoned in 1964.

Alarcón, Pedro Antonio de, 1833-91, Spanish writer, politician, and diplomat. He wrote several novels, including El sombrero de tres picos (1874, tr. The Three-cornered Hat, 1891), on which Manuel de Falla based his popular ballet, and El capitán Veneno (1881, tr. Captain Venom, 1914). In these works Alarcón shows keen powers of observation and subtle humor.

(born March 28, 1936, Arequipa, Peru) Peruvian writer. Vargas Llosa worked as a journalist and broadcaster before publishing The Time of the Hero (1963), his widely acclaimed first novel. It describes adolescents striving for survival in the hostile environment of a military school, the corruption of which reflects the larger malaise afflicting Peru. His commitment to social change is evident in his early novels, essays, and plays. He turned increasingly conservative, especially in the face of the Maoist Shining Path insurgency, and in 1990 he ran for president of Peru. His best-known works include The Green House (1965), Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter (1977), and The War of the End of the World (1981), an account of a 19th-century Brazilian religious movement. In 1994 he won the Cervantes Prize (a prestigious literary award given for Spanish-language literature).

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(born circa 1498, Extremadura, Spain—died January 1554, Tucapel, Viceroyalty of Peru) Spanish conquistador. After serving with the Spanish army in Italy and Flanders, he was sent to South America in 1534, where he served under Francisco Pizarro in Peru. In 1540 he led an expedition of 150 Spaniards into Chile, where he defeated a large force of Indians and founded Santiago in 1541. He extended Spanish rule south to the Bío-Bío River in 1546, fought again in Peru (1546–48), and returned to Chile as governor in 1549. He began to conquer Chile south of the Bío-Bío and founded Concepción in 1550. He was killed in a campaign against the Araucanian Indians.

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City (pop., 2001: 439,086), northwestern Honduras. It is located about 100 mi (160 km) northwest of Tegucigalpa. Founded by the Spanish in 1536, the city has been almost completely rebuilt. It is the country's chief industrial centre and second largest city; it produces a wide variety of items, including textiles, foodstuffs, clothing, beverages, and furniture.

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(born 1467/68, Belmonte, Port.—died 1520, Santarém?) Portuguese navigator credited with the discovery of Brazil. A nobleman, Cabral long enjoyed the favour of Manuel I of Portugal, who in 1500 sent him and 13 ships on the second Portuguese voyage to India, following the route taken by Vasco da Gama, to strengthen commercial ties and further Portugal's conquests. Cabral sailed southwest on a route that took him close to lands that had previously been sighted and claimed by the Portuguese. On April 22, 1500, he landed on the coast of what is now Brazil and formally took possession of the country for Portugal. The rest of his journey to India and back was beset by misfortune; only four ships returned to Portugal.

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(born circa 1498, Extremadura, Spain—died January 1554, Tucapel, Viceroyalty of Peru) Spanish conquistador. After serving with the Spanish army in Italy and Flanders, he was sent to South America in 1534, where he served under Francisco Pizarro in Peru. In 1540 he led an expedition of 150 Spaniards into Chile, where he defeated a large force of Indians and founded Santiago in 1541. He extended Spanish rule south to the Bío-Bío River in 1546, fought again in Peru (1546–48), and returned to Chile as governor in 1549. He began to conquer Chile south of the Bío-Bío and founded Concepción in 1550. He was killed in a campaign against the Araucanian Indians.

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orig. Pedro de Luna

(born circa 1328, Illueca, Kingdom of Aragon—died 1423, Peñíscola, in Valencia) Antipope (1394–1423). A French professor of canon law, he was named a cardinal in 1375. When the Western Schism began in 1378, he supported the antipope Clement VII. Elected pope at Avignon (see Avignon papacy), he refused French pressure to abdicate and was besieged in the papal palace (1398). Benedict escaped to Provence in 1403 and won back the obedience of France. He refused to yield when deposed by the Councils of Pisa (1409) and Constance (1417).

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(born circa 1485, Badajoz, Castile—died 1541, in or near Guadalajara, New Spain) Spanish soldier and colonial administrator. In 1519 he accompanied the army led by Hernán Cortés that conquered Mexico. In 1522 he became the first mayor of Tenochtitlán (Mexico City). In 1523 he conquered the native peoples of Guatemala and founded the city (modern Antigua) that became the first capital of the Guatemala region, which later included much of Central America. He was governor of Guatemala in 1527–31. In 1539 he began an exploration of central Mexico, but died while quelling an Indian uprising.

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orig. Dom Pedro de Alcântara

(born Dec. 2, 1825, Rio de Janeiro, Braz.—died Dec. 5, 1891, Paris, Fr.) Second and last emperor of Brazil (1831–89). He became emperor at age five when his father, Pedro I, abdicated. After a period of regency, he was crowned in 1841. His concern for his subjects, skill at arbitrating political disputes, and leadership in economic matters brought stability to the country. He led Brazil into the Paraguayan War, which brought Brazil prestige and territory. His support eroded primarily over the issue of the imperial prerogatives. Emancipation was proclaimed in 1888; in 1889 Pedro II was removed in a military coup, and a republic was established. Seealso José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva.

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known as Dom Pedro

(born Oct. 12, 1798, Lisbon, Port.—died Sept. 24, 1834, Lisbon) First emperor of Brazil (1822–31) and, briefly, king of Portugal. The son of John VI of Portugal, he became regent of Brazil in 1821, but in 1822 he broke with Lisbon and declared Brazil's independence. The former colony became a constitutional monarchy with Pedro its emperor. Strong opposition to his autocratic manner and impatience with parliamentary procedure induced him to abdicate in favour of his five-year-old son, Pedro II. When John VI died, Pedro I became Portugal's King Pedro IV, but he quickly abdicated in favour of his daughter, the future Queen Maria II. Seealso José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva.

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(born 1467/68, Belmonte, Port.—died 1520, Santarém?) Portuguese navigator credited with the discovery of Brazil. A nobleman, Cabral long enjoyed the favour of Manuel I of Portugal, who in 1500 sent him and 13 ships on the second Portuguese voyage to India, following the route taken by Vasco da Gama, to strengthen commercial ties and further Portugal's conquests. Cabral sailed southwest on a route that took him close to lands that had previously been sighted and claimed by the Portuguese. On April 22, 1500, he landed on the coast of what is now Brazil and formally took possession of the country for Portugal. The rest of his journey to India and back was beset by misfortune; only four ships returned to Portugal.

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(born circa 1485, Badajoz, Castile—died 1541, in or near Guadalajara, New Spain) Spanish soldier and colonial administrator. In 1519 he accompanied the army led by Hernán Cortés that conquered Mexico. In 1522 he became the first mayor of Tenochtitlán (Mexico City). In 1523 he conquered the native peoples of Guatemala and founded the city (modern Antigua) that became the first capital of the Guatemala region, which later included much of Central America. He was governor of Guatemala in 1527–31. In 1539 he began an exploration of central Mexico, but died while quelling an Indian uprising.

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