Vulgar Latin vocabulary

Vulgar Latin vocabulary is the vocabulary of Vulgar Latin, i.e. the everyday level of the Classical and Late Antique Latin language.

Historical overview

Like all languages, Latin possessed numerous synonyms that were associated with different speech registers. Some of these words occur in the everyday language since Plautus, while others were borrowed late into Latin from other languages (Germanic, Gaulish, words from one or more Paleo-Balkan languages in the Vulgar Latin that led to Eastern Romance etc.).

Certain words from Classical Latin were dropped from the vocabulary. Classical equus, "horse", was consistently replaced by caballus "nag" (but note Romanian iapă, Sardinian èbba, Spanish yegua, Catalan euga and Portuguese egua all meaning "mare" and deriving from Classical equa).

The vocabulary changes affected even the basic grammatical particles of Latin; there are many that vanish without a trace in Romance, such as an, at, autem, dōnec, enim, ergō, etiam, haud, igitur, ita, nam, postquam, quidem, quīn, quod, quoque, sed, utrum and vel.

Verbs with prefixed prepositions frequently displaced simple forms. The number of words formed by such suffixes as -bilis, -ārius, -itāre and -icāre grew apace. These changes occurred frequently to avoid irregular forms or to regularise genders.

On the other hand, since Vulgar Latin and Latin proper were for much of their history different registers of the same language, rather than different languages, some Romance languages preserve Latin words that were lost in most others. For example, Italian ogni ("each/every") preserves Latin omnes. Other languages use cognates of tōtus for the same meaning; for example tutto in Italian, tudo/todo in Portuguese, todo in Spanish, tot in Catalan, tout in French and tot in Romanian.

Sometimes, a classical Latin word was kept alongside a Vulgar Latin word. In Vulgar Latin, classical caput, "head", yielded to testa (originally "pot") in some forms of western Romance, including French and Italian. But Italian, French and Catalan kept the Latin word under the form capo, chef, and cap which retained many metaphorical meanings of "head", including "boss". The Latin words with the original meanings are preserved in Romanian cap, meaning 'head' in the anatomical sense, together with ṭeastă, meaning skull or carapace. Southern Italian dialects likewise preserve capo as the normal word for "head". Spanish and Portuguese have cabeza/cabeça, derived from *capetia, a modified form of caput, while in Portuguese testa was retained as the word for "forehead".

Frequently, words borrowed directly from literary Latin at some later date, rather than evolved within Vulgar Latin, are found side by side with the evolved form. The (lack of) expected phonetic developments is a clue that one word has been borrowed. For example, Vulgar Latin fungus, "fungus, mushroom", which became Italian fungo, Catalan fong, and Portuguese fungo, became hongo in Spanish, showing the f > h shift that was common in early Spanish (cf. fīlius > Spanish hijo, "son", facere > Spanish hacer, "to do"). But Spanish also had fungo, which by its lack of the expected sound shift shows that it was borrowed directly from Latin.

Vulgar Latin contained a large number of words of foreign origin not present in literary texts. Many works on medicine were written and distributed in Greek, and words were often borrowed from these sources. For example, gamba ('knee joint' ), originally a veterinary term only, replaced the classical Latin word for leg (crus) in most Romance languages. (cf. Fr. jambe, It. gamba). Cooking terms were also often borrowed from Greek sources, a calque based on a Greek term was ficatum (iecur) (goose's liver fattened with figs, see foie gras for more information), with the participle ficatum becoming the common word for liver in Vulgar Latin (cf. Sp. higado, Fr. foie, It. fegato, Pt fígado, Romanian ficat). Important religious terms were also drawn from religious texts written in Greek, such as episcopus (bishop), presbyter (priest), martyr etc. Words borrowed from Gaulish include caballus (horse) and carrus (chariot).

Selected list of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin words

English meaning	Latin form	Ancient instances	Modern Romance inherited forms
"all"	omnis		Italian ogni
	tōtus		French tout, Italian tutto, Spanish todo, Portuguese todo/tudo, Romanian tot
"altar"	āra		-
	altāria		French autel, Italian altare, Portuguese/Spanish/Romanian altar
"ask"	rogāre		Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan rogar, Romanian ruga
	interrogāre		Old French enterver, Romanian întreba (French interroger, Italian interrogare, Spanish/Portuguese interrogar are learned forms)
	quaerere		Italian chiedere, Romanian cere, change of meaning in French quérir "fetch" and in Spanish/Portuguese querer "want"
	dēmandāre		French demander, Italian domandare, Spanish/Portuguese demandar, Catalan demanar, Aromanian dimânda
"back"	tergum		Italian terga, Portuguese tergo
	dorsum	-	French/Catalan/Romanian dos, Italian/Portuguese/Spanish dorso, in Classical Latin normally "the horizontal back of an animal"
	costa	-	Portuguese costa and in the Spanish phrase " a cuestas" ("on one's back"); otherwise in the Romance languages the word did not develop the meaning of "back", but rather stayed closer to the Classical meanings; see Spanish cuesta (slope), Italian costa (coast, slope, rib), Romanian coastă (side, rib) etc.
	spatula	-	Spanish espalda
"beak"	rōstrum		Italian rostro, Spanish rostro, Portuguese rosto, "face", Romanian rost "mouth" (archaic)
	*beccus (Gaulish)	Reichenau glosses	French bec, Italian becco, Catalan bec, Spanish pico, Portuguese bico
"beautiful"	pulcher		Portuguese pulcro
	fōrmōsus		Spanish hermoso, Portuguese formoso, Romanian frumos
	bellus		French beau, Italian/Spanish bello, Portuguese belo
"begin"	conārī		-
	incipere		Romanian începe
	*cominitiāre		Portuguese começar, French commencer, Italian cominciare, Spanish comenzar, from initiāre "initiate"
"big"	magnus		Sicilian magnu, Portuguese/Spanish/Galician magno
	grandis		French grand, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese grande, Catalan gran
"bird"	avis		Spanish/Portuguese ave
	*avicellus/avicella/avicula (diminutive)		French oiseau, Italian uccello, Portuguese auzel/avicelo/avícula, Catalan aucel
	passer		Spanish pájaro, Portuguese pássaro, Romanian pasăre, originally "sparrow" (so Italian passero)
"blow"	flāre		-
	sufflāre		French souffler, Italian soffiare, Romanian 'sufla, Portuguese soprar/suflar, Spanish soplar, from flāre with prefix sub
"boy"	puer		-
	*ninnus (hypocoristic)		Italian mimmo, Spanish niño, Portuguese menino
"breathe"	spīrāre		Portuguese espirar (to breathe; to blow; to exhale; "to be alive")
	respīrāre		French respirer, Italian respirare, Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan respirar, frequentative form of spirāre
"brown"	furvus		-
	*brūnus (Germanic)	Reichenau glosses	French brun, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese bruno
"buy"	emere		-
	comparāre		Italian comp(e)rare, Spanish/Portuguese comprar, Romanian cumpăra
	*accaptāre		French acheter, Italian accattare ("beg", older "buy"), Portuguese acatar/acaptar ("to obey", "respect", "heed"/ "to cull", "pick out", "search"/ "to acquire", "obtain")
"cat"	fēlēs		-
	*cattus		French chat, Italian gatto, Spanish/Portuguese gato
"cauldron"	lebēs		-
	*calidāria	Reichenau glosses	French chaudière, Italian calderone, Romanian căldare, Spanish caldera, Portuguese caldeirão/caldeira from calidus, "warm"
"change"	mūtāre		Italian mutare, Spanish/Portuguese mudar, Romanian muta
	*cambiāre (Gaulish)		Fr changer, It cambiare, Sp cambiar, Ro schimba, Pt cambiar ("barter", "exchange money") not in classical Latin, probably originally "to exchange"
"cheese",	caseus		Italian cacio, Spanish queso, Portuguese queijo, Romanian caş, also borrowed into Germanic: English cheese, German Käse
	fōrmāticum	Reichenau glosses	French fromage, hence Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, post-classical, from fōrmāre, "to form"
"child"	līberī		-
	īnfāns		French enfant, Italian fante "infantryman", Spanish/Portuguese infante, "prince"
"city"	urbs
	oppidum		-
	cīvitās		French cité, Italian città, Spanish ciudad, Portuguese cidade, Romanian cetate
"count"	numerāre		French nombrer, Italian noverare, Portuguese (e)numerar, Romanian număra
	computāre		French compter, Italian contare, Spanish/Portuguese contar, computar
"country"	regiō		Old French royon, Italian rione "neighbourhood" (French région, Italian regione, Portuguese região, Spanish región Romanian regiune are learned forms)
	pāgus		-
	pāgēnsis	Gregory of Tours	Italian paese, French pays, hence Spanish/Portuguese país, Catalan pahis
"day"	diēs		Italian dì, Spanish/Portuguese dia, Romanian zi
	diurnum		French jour, Italian giorno, Catalan jorn
"destroy"	dēlēre		Portuguese/Galician delir
	dēstruere		French détruire, Italian distruggere, Spanish/Portuguese destruir
"door"	forēs
	iānua		Logudorese yanna, Northern Calabrian yanuwẹ (Portuguese janella "window/opening", Galician xanela)
	porta	-	French porte, Italian/Portuguese/Catalan porta, Spanish puerta, Romanian poartă, originally "gate"
"ear"	auris		-
	auricula (diminutive)		French oreille, Italian orecchio, Spanish oreja, Portuguese orelha, Catalan orella, Romanian ureche
"eat"	edere		-
	comedere		Spanish/Portuguese comer
	mandūcāre		French manger, Italian manducare, Romanian mânca (Italian mangiare and Portuguese manjar are from the French)
"enemy"	hostis		Spanish hueste, Portuguese hoste, Romanian oaste, "army"
	inimīcus		French ennemi, Italian nemico, Spanish enemigo, Portuguese inimigo; in Classical Latin, inimīcus is "a personal enemy"
"evening"	vesper		French vêpre, Italian vespro, Spanish vísperas, Portuguese vésper, vésperas, normally in an ecclesiastical meaning
	sēra		French soir, Italian sera, Romanian seară, Portuguese serão
	tardis		Sp/Pt tarde "afternoon"
"fat"	pinguis		Italian pingue
	crassus > *grassus	Reichenau glosses	French/Romanian gras, Italian grasso, Spanish graso, Portuguese crasso/graxo, with g- from grossus
	grossus		French/Romanian gros, Italian/Portuguese grosso, Spanish grueso
"feather"	penna		Italian penna, Portuguese pena, Romanian pană
	plūma		French plume, Italian piuma, Spanish/Portuguese pluma, Catalan ploma
"field"	ager		Portuguese/Galician agro, Romanian agru
	campus	Reichenau glosses	French champ, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese campo, Romanian câmp
"fight"	pugna		Portuguese/Galician pugna
	*lūcta		French lutte, Italian lotta, Portuguese luta, Spanish lucha, Romanian luptă, originally "wrestling match", post-classical, classical equivalents were lūctāmen and lūctātiō, all from lūctārī, "to fight"
"find"	invenīre		-
	*incontrāre		Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese encontrar, originally "meet" (French encontrer, Italian incontrare)
	turbāre		French trouver, hence Italian trovare, originally "disturb" (Italian/Romanian turbare) > "track down" (Spanish turbar, Portuguese torvar "impede")
"fight"	pugnāre		-
	luctārī		Italian lottare, Spanish luchar, Portuguese lutar, Romanian lupta
"fingernail"	unguis		-
	ungula (diminutive)	Reichenau glosses	French ongle, Italian unghia, Spanish uña, Portuguese unha, Catalan ungla , Romanian unghie
"fire"	ignis		-
	focus		French feu, Italian fuoco, Spanish fuego, Portuguese fogo, Romanian/Catalan foc
"food"	cibus		Italian dial. cevo and similar forms (Italian cibo is a learned form), Portuguese/Galician ceva/cevo and cibo
	alimenta		French alimentation, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese alimento, Catalan aliment
"force"	vīs		-
	*fortia	Reichenau glosses	French force, Italian forza, Spanish fuerza, Portuguese força, from fortis, "strong", Romanian forţă
"from"	ab		-
	dē		French/Spanish/Portuguese/Romanian de, Italian da and di ("of")
"garden"	hortus		Italian orto, Spanish huerto, Portuguese horto/a, Romanian curte (
	*gardīnus (Germanic)		French jardin, hence Italian giardino, Spanish jardín, Portuguese jardim
"girl"	puella		Portuguese puela (learned form)
	fīlia		French fille, also and originally "daughter" (the normal meaning in the other Romance languages: It. figlia, Pt. filha, Ro. fiică, Sp. hija)
	*ninna (hypocoristic)		Spanish niña, Catalan noy(a), Portuguese menina
"head"	caput		French chef, Spanish/Portuguese cabo, Catalan/Romanian cap; in and Italian capo; outside of Romanian, the word has taken a metaphorical meaning, "leader" and the like (also cf. Romania căpetenie, "chieftain")
	*capetia		Spanish cabeza, Portuguese cabeça
	testa		French tête, Italian testa, Spanish/Portuguese testa "forehead", Romanian ţeastă "skull", originally "pot"
"helmet"	galea		-
	cofea (Germanic)		Romanian coif (cf. English coifcoifecofea)
	*helmus (Germanic)	Reichenau glosses	French heaume, Italian/Portuguese elmo, Catalan elm, Spanish yelmo
"help"	iuvāre		- Italian giovare
	adiūtāre		French aider, Italian aiutare, Spanish ayudar, Portuguese/Catalan ajudar, Romanian ajuta, frequentative of iuvāre with prefix ad
"horse"	equus		Spanish yegua, Portuguese égua, Romanian iapă, "mare"
	caballus		French cheval, Italian/Portuguese cavallo, Spanish caballo, Romanian cal
"house"	domus		Italian duomo "cathedral"
	casa		French chez, "at the house of > at", Italian/Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan casa, Romanian casă; in Classical Latin, casa is "a humble dwelling"
	mānsiō		French maison, Portuguese mansão, Italian mansione ("work") in Classical Latin "a halt on a journey"
"huge"	ingēns		Portuguese/Galician ingente ("enourmous"), Italian ingente ("numerous")
	ēnormis		French énorme, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese enorme
"hunt"	vēnārī		French vener, Catalan venar, Romanian vâna, Portuguese venatar(learned form, influenced by venatus), veadar (to hunt deers)
	*captiāre		French chasser, Italian cacciare, Spanish cazar, Portuguese caçar; post-classical, frequentative of capere, "to catch"
"kill"	enecāre		French noyer, Italian annegare, Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese anegar, Romanian îneca "drown"
	interficere		-
	mactare		Portuguese/Spanish matar, originally "to sacrifice", "immolate"
	occīdere	Reichenau glosses	Old French ocire, Italian uccidere, Romanian ucide
	trux cidare		Italian trucidare, Portuguese trucidar (both meaning slay)
	tūtārī		French tuer, originally "protect oneself, tutor"
"kiss"	ōsculārī		Portuguese/Galician oscular (learned form)
	bāsiāre	Catullus, Petronius	French baiser, Italian baciare, Spanish/Catalan besar, Portuguese beijar, Aromanian baş
"kitchen"	culīna		-
	coquīna	Apuleius	French cuisine, Italian cucina, Spanish cocina, Portuguese cozinha
"know"	scīre		Romanian şti
	sapere		French savoir, Italian sapere, Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan saber
"leg"	crūs		-
	*camba (Greek)	Vegetius (4th cent.)	French jambe, Italian gamba, Catalan/Portuguese camba, Romanian gambă, also Pt "câimbra, cambito, cambalhota, gâmbia, gambeta"
	perna		Portuguese/Galician perna, pernil, Spanish pierna
"male"	mās		-
	māsculus (diminutive)	Reichenau glosses	French mâle, Italian maschio, Portuguese (> Spanish) macho, Dialectal Romanian mascur
"man"	vir		-
	homō/ Ac. hominem		French homme, Italian uomo, Spanish hombre, Portuguese homem, Catalan ome, Romanian om, in Classical Latin "a human being" (in opposition to gods and beasts)
"market"	forum		Old French fuer "law", Spanish fuero "id.", Portuguese foro/fórum "court", Italian foro, "hole"
	mercatum	Reichenau glosses	French marché, Italian mercato, Spanish/Portuguese mercado
"mob"	turba		Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan turba
	*fulcus	Reichenau glosses	French foule, Italian folla
"money"	pecūnia		Portuguese pecúnia (learned)
	dēnārius		Italian denaro, Spanish dinero, Portuguese dinheiro, Catalan diner, originally a Roman coin
	argentum		French argent, both "money" and "silver" (both meanings in Classical Latin), Italian argento, "silver", Romanian argint, Spanish and Portuguese plata/prata from Provençal "silver"
"mouth"	ōs		-
	bucca		French bouche, Italian bocca, Romanian bucă, Portuguese/Spanish/Catalan boca, originally "cheek"
"narrow"	angustus		Portuguese angusto, Spanish angosto, Romanian îngust
	strictus		French étroit, Italian stretto, Portuguese estreito, Spanish estrecho, Romanian strâmt
"never"	numquam		Old French nonques, Spanish/Portuguese nunca
	iam magis		French/Portuguese jamais, Italian giammai, Spanish jamás, originally "ever"
"obey"	pārēre		-
	oboedīre		French obéir, Italian obbedire, Spanish/Portuguese obedecer
"old"	vetus		Old French viez, Italian vieto, Portuguese vetusto (vetustus)
	vetulus		French vieux, Italian vecchio, Spanish viejo, Catalan vell, Portuguese velho, Romanian vechi, diminutive of vetus
"papyrus > paper"	charta		Italian carta, Romanian carte, Spanish/Portuguese carta "letter/chart"
	papȳrus		French papier, Spanish/Portuguese papel, Catalan paper,
"pay"	(ex)pendere		-
	dispendere		Italian spendere (Spanish despender, Catalan despendre "use")
	pācāre		French payer, Italian pagare, Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese pagar, originally "bring under control"
"play"	lūdere		-
	iocārī		French jouer, Italian giocare, Spanish jugar, Portuguese jogar, Romanian juca,
"play"	lūdus		Portuguese ludo
	iocus		French jeu, Italian giuoco, Spanish juego, Portuguese jogo, Romanian joc
"quail"	coturnīx		Spanish/Portuguese codorniz, Catalan codorniu
	*coācula	Reichenau glosses	French caille, Italian quaglia
"quick"	celer		Portuguese célere
	rapidus		Romanian repede; French rapide, Italian rapido, Spanish/Portuguese rápido are learned forms that have replaced the regular outcomes Old French rade, Italian ratto, Spanish raudo
	velox		Spanish/Portuguese veloz
"recognise"	agnōscere		-
	recognōscere		French reconnaître, Italian riconoscere, Portuguese reconhecer, Spanish reconocer, Romanian recunoaşte
"right a." (opp. "left")	dexter		Italian/Portuguese destro, Spanish diestro, Catalan destre
	dirēctus		French droit, Italian diritto, Spanish derecho, Portuguese direito, Romanian drept
"right n."	iūs		Sicilian iussu
	dirēctus		French droit, Italian diritto, Spanish derecho, Portuguese direito, Romanian drept
"river"	flūmen		Italian fiume, Sicilian hiumi, Portuguese flume/flúmen (learned)
	fluvius		Portuguese flúvio, French fleuve
	rīvus		Old French ri(f), Old Italian rigo, Spanish río Portuguese rio, Catalan riu, Romanian rîu
"rock"	saxum		Italian sasso, Portuguese saxo
	*rocca (perhaps Germanic)		French roche, Italian roccia, Portuguese rocha, Spanish rocca, post-classical
"rope"	fūnis		Italian fune, Romanian funie, Portuguese funículo
	chorda		French corde, Italian/Portuguese/Catalan corda, Spanish cuerda, Romanian coardă
"sand"	arena		Italian rena, Spanish arena, Portuguese areia, Dialectal Romanian arină, Sicilian rina
	sabulo		French sable, Italian sabbia, Romanian sabie
"shirt"	tunica		Italian tonaca, Spanish tonga "coat", Portuguese túnica
	camisia (Gaulish?)	Jerome	Vegliot kamaisa, Romanian cămaşă; with learned -i- (from the ecclesiastical language): French chemise, Italian camicia, Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese camisa
"short"	brevis		French bref, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese breve
	curtus		Portuguese curto, French court, Italian/Spanish corto, Romanian scurt
"show"	ostendere		-
	mōnstrāre		French montrer (with Latin n for earlier mostrer), Italian mostrare, Spanish/Portuguese mostrar
"sick"	aeger		-
	dolente		Portuguese doente
	infirmus		Italian infermo, Spanish/Portuguese enfermo
	male habitus	Nepos, Aulus Gellius	French malade, Italian malato, Catalan malalt, Portuguese maladia, originally "in a bad condition"
"sing"	canere		-
	cantāre (frequentative)		French chanter, Italian cantare, Portuguese/Galician/Spanish/Catalan cantar, Romanian cânta
"skin"	cutis		Portuguese cútis
	pellis		French peau, Italian pelle, Spanish piel, Portuguese pele, Catalan pell, Romanian piele; in Classical Latin normally "a hide"
"speak"	loquī		-
	fābulārī		Spanish hablar, Portuguese falar
	*parabolāre		French parler, Italian parlare, hence Spanish parlar, Portuguese parlar/palrar/parolar
"spear"	hasta		Portuguese hasta/e, Spanish asta (shaft of a weapon), Italian asta
	lancea		French lance, Italian lancia, Spanish lanza, Portuguese lança, Catalan llança
"spring"	vēr		Romanian vară, Spanish verano, Portuguese verão, Galician verán, "summer"
	prīma vēra		Italian/Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan primavera, Romanian primăvară, originally "first spring"
	prīmum tempus		French printemps, literally "first time"
"stone"	lapis		Italian lapide, Portuguese lápide
	petra		French pierre, Italian pietra, Spanish piedra, Portuguese/Catalan pedra, Romanian piatră
"stonemason"	cēmentarius		-
	matiō	Reichenau glosses	French maçon, Spanish masón, Portuguese maçom/mação
	petrarius		Portuguese pedreiro, Romanian pietrar
"sword"	gladium		French glai "iris", Old Italian ghiado, Portuguese gládio
	spatha (Greek)		French épée, Italian spada, Spanish/Portuguese espada, Catalan espasa, Romanian spată
"take"	capere		Old French chavoir, Italian capire "understand", Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese caber "contain"
	prehendere		French prendre, Italian prendere, Spanish/Portuguese prender, Catalan pendre, Romanian prinde
"teach"	docēre		Old French duire
	*insignāre		French enseigner, Italian insegnare, Romanian însemna, Spanish enseñar, Portuguese ensinar, probably originally "to engrave", from signāre, "to engrave", with prefix in-
"thigh"	femur		-
	coxa	Reichenau glosses	Portuguese, Galician and Old Spanish coxa, French cuisse, Italian coscia, Catalan cuixa, Romanian coapsă, originally "hip", first attested in Silver Latin
"thing"	rēs		French (ne) ... rien "nothing", Old Portuguese rem/nulla res "nothing"
	causa	Reichenau glosses	French chose, Italian/Spanish/Catalan cosa, Portuguese coisa/cousa, originally "cause"
"think"	cōgitāre		Portuguese/Spanish/Galician cogitar (to cogitate, to meditate, to infer, to reflect) and cuidar (to care, to take care; to suppose), Romanian cugeta,
	pensāre		French penser, Italian pensare, Spanish/Portuguese pensar
"throw"	iacere		Italian giacere, Romanian zăcea
	iactāre		French jeter, Italian gettare, Spanish echar, Portuguese geitar; originally a frequentative
"tomorrow"	crās		Sicilian crai
	māne		French demain, Italian domani, Spanish mañana, Portuguese amanhã, Romanian mâine, originally "in the morning"
"touch"	tangere		Portuguese tanger (touch and play), Spanish taňer "play an instrument", Romanian atinge (attingere) "to touch"
	*toccāre (imitative)		French toucher, Italian toccare, Spanish/Portuguese tocar(touch and play), probably originally "to knock, strike", Romanian toc (onomatopoeic, indicating a knock), toca (to beat or cut into pieces), toacă (singing wooden board)
"understand"	intelligere		Romanian înţelege
	comprehendere		French/Catalan comprendre, Portuguese compreender, Italian comprendere, Spanish comprender, Romanian cuprinde
	capere		Italian capire "understand" (Old French chavoir, Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese caber "contain")
	intendere		Portuguese/Spanish/Galician entender
"war"	bellum		-
	*werra (Germanic)		French guerre, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese guerra
"weep"	lamentāre		Portuguese lamentar, Italian lamentarsi
	planctus		Portuguese prantear, Spanish llanto(noun)
	plangere		Portuguese planger, Romanian plânge, French plaindre
	plōrāre	Reichenau glosses	French pleurer, Spanish llorar, Portuguese chorar, Catalan ''plorar,
"white"	albus		Portuguese alvo, Romanian alb, Spanish albo
	*blancus (Germanic)		French/Catalan blanc, Italian bianco, Spanish blanco, Portuguese branco
"why"	cūr		-
	prō quō		French pourquoi, Italian perché, Spanish por qué, Portuguese por que/porquê/por quê
"wide"	lātus		Portuguese lato, Romanian lat
	largus		French large, Italian/Portuguese largo, Romanian larg, originally "abundant"
"winter"	hiems		-
	hibernus	Reichenau glosses	French hiver, Italian inverno, Spanish invierno, Portuguese inverno, Catalan invern, Romanian iarnă, adjective of hiems
"woman"	fēmina		French femme, Italian femmina, Sicilian fímmina, Spanish hembra, Portuguese fêmea, Romanian femeie
	mulier		Portuguese mulher, Italian moglie(meaning wife), Spanish mujer, Romanian muiere
	domina		French dame (meaning lady/dame), Italian donna(meaning woman), Portuguese dona and dama (meaning lady/dame), Romanian doamnă (meaning lady/dame); originally "female head of a household, mistress"
"word"	verbum		-
	parabola (Greek)		French parole, Italian parola, Portuguese palavra, Spanish palabra, in Silver Latin "a comparison"
"work"	labōrāre		Italian lavorare, Spanish labrar, Catalan llaurar, Portuguese laborar/lavrar/labutar, "to plough" or "to cultivate"
	*tripāliāre		French travailler, Spanish trabajar, Portuguese trabalhar, from trēs, "three" + pālus, "stake";
"yellow"	flāvus		Portuguese/Galician flavo
	fulvus		Portuguese/Galician fulvo
	galbinus	Petronius, Martial	French jaune, Italian giallo, Romanian galben, originally "greenish-yellow"
	amarus/dim. amarellus		Portuguese/Galician amarelo, Spanish amarillo
"yes"	ita		-
	sīc	Reichenau glosses	Italian sì, Spanish sí, Portuguese sim
	hoc		French oui

Notes