water on the brain: see hydrocephalus.

snow-on-the-mountain: see spurge.

piñon: see pine nut.

Washington-on-the-Brazos, former town, S central Tex., on the Brazos River; settled 1821. It was the scene of the Texas declaration of independence from Mexico on Mar. 2, 1836, and in 1842 it was the seat of the Republic of Texas's government. A state park on the site commemorates the town's historical importance.

Walras, Léon, 1834-1910, French economist. After abandoning his studies in mining engineering, he became a free-lance journalist, advancing the causes of economic and social reform. He later became a professor of political economy at the Univ. of Lausanne (1870-1892). One of the most influential of economists, Walras advanced several theories that served as the foundation of modern economic analysis. He is widely regarded as the founder of the theory of general economic equilibrium, mathematical economics, the concept of "imperfect competition," and the marginal utility theory. A prolific and creative writer, Walras's work also extended to such themes as managed currency, production, credit, and capital formation.

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) or Earth Summit, an 11-day meeting held in June, 1992, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to discuss the global conflict between economic development and environmental protection. Representatives of 172 nations agreed to work toward the sustainable development of the planet, although most of the agreements were not legally binding. Sustainable development is the growth of population, industry, and agriculture in a way that will allow the present generation to meet its own needs without damaging those of future generations. Two binding declarations-to minimize global climate change (see global warming) and to stem the depletion of the world's inventory of biological diversity were signed by more than 150 countries at the conference, with others expected to sign later. Other documents concerned the financing of environmental and forest protection, technology transfer, and such diverse subjects as desertification and atmospheric pollution; the responsibilities and rights of nations in development-environment issues; and the sustainable management of the earth's forests.

See acid rain; air pollution; conservation of natural resources; ecology; environmentalism; pollution; solid waste; toxic waste; water pollution.

United Nations Commission on Conventional Armaments: see United Nations.

Tallemant des Réaux, Gédéon, 1619-92, French writer. His one great work is a series of brief anecdotal portraits of persons prominent in the Paris of his day, written after 1657 but not published until 1834. They present a vivid, faithful, and acute picture of the society of the period. The Historiettes have appeared in English as Miniature Portraits (1926).

Sunbury-on-Thames, town (1991 pop. 26,240), Surrey, SE England, on the Thames. Sunbury Park with its walled garden is there. Nearby Shepperton has motion-picture studios and a village center from the 17th-18th cent. The novelist Thomas Love Peacock lived in the area and is buried in Shepperton.

Stratford-on-Avon, town (1991 pop. 20,941) and district, Warwickshire, central England, on the Avon River. A market town with light industries, Stratford owes its fame to its associations with William Shakespeare. A gabled building on Henley St., believed to be the poet's birthplace, is open to the public. The site of the home he purchased in 1597, and where he died in 1616, is marked (the building having been torn down in 1759). His grave is beside that of his wife, Anne Hathaway (whose home, "Anne Hathaway's Cottage," is near Stratford), in the old Church of the Holy Trinity. The church has a bust and memorial to the poet and a stained-glass window (given by Americans in 1885) depicting Shakespeare's "seven ages of man."

The town's principal memorial is the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, where annual Shakespeare festivals are held. The first theater, built in the late 19th cent., was destroyed by fire in 1926, but the attached gallery, library, and museum were saved. The current theater was dedicated as the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre in 1932. The Royal Shakespeare Company operates several venues in Stratford, including the Swan Theatre.

Most of the structures and places in Stratford connected with the life of Shakespeare were acquired by the nation in the 19th cent. Edward VI's Grammar School, which Shakespeare may have attended, is national property. Shakespeare scholars from all over the world attend the Shakespeare Institute of the Univ. of Birmingham. In 1964 the Shakespeare Centre was established on Henley St. in Stratford.

Stoke-on-Trent, city (1991 pop. 272,446) and district, Staffordshire, W central England. Stoke-on-Trent forms the bulk of the area known as the Potteries. Situated in a coal field, the city is the center of the Staffordshire pottery-making industry. Coal is also mined, and brick, tile, chemicals, and tires are manufactured. Ironworking remains important. The Trent to Mersey Canal (opened 1777), which passes through the district, aided the growth of the pottery industry in the 18th cent. Stoke-on-Trent has several museums and pottery collections, and Josiah Wedgwood, Josiah Spode, and Thomas and Herbert Minton are among the famous potters from the area. North Staffordshire Technical College and the British Ceramic Research Laboratories are there. The writer Arnold Bennett was born and is buried in Stoke-on-Trent. The large Atlon Towers amusement park is nearby.

Southend-on-Sea, city (1991 pop. 155,720) and district, Essex, E England, at the mouth of the Thames River. The city is a popular seaside resort; its extensive amusement pier suffered major damage from fire in 2005. Manufactures include aluminum foil, paint, electronic equipment, and pharmaceuticals. Yachting events are held there annually. Southend-on-Sea also has an airport.

Rocard, Michel Louis Léon. 1930-, French politician. After studying at the École Nationale d'Administration and the Institut d'Études Politiques, he joined the civil service. He led the Unified Socialist party, was active in the 1968 student demonstrations, and won a small percentage of the 1969 presidential vote. In 1974, he supported François Mitterrand for the presidency and later merged his party with the new Socialist party. In Mitterrand's government, he held several ministerial appointments, but resigned in 1985 over a disagreement concerning a proposal for proportional representation made by the government of Laurent Fabius. In 1988 he became premier, but was criticized by the left for moving to the right economically. In May, 1991, he was replaced by Edith Cresson. Rocard served as head of the Socialist party from 1993 to 1994.

Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs: see Rotblat, Sir Joseph.

Poisson, Siméon Denis, 1781-1840, French mathematician and physicist. From 1802 he taught at the École polytechnique, Paris, and was also on the faculty of sciences at the Univ. of Paris from 1809. His chief interest lay in the application of mathematics to physics, especially in electrostatics and magnetism. He developed a two-fluid theory of electricity and provided theoretical support for the experimental results of others, notably C. A. de Coulomb. Poisson also made important contributions to mechanics, especially the theory of elasticity; to optics; to the calculus, especially definite integrals; to differential geometry; and to probability theory. Other studies were concerned with heat and the motions of the moon. In all he wrote more than 300 papers on mathematics, physics, and astronomy, and his Traité de mécanique (1811) was long a standard work.

On, in the Bible. 1 Reubenite conspirator in Korah's revolt. 2 The Egyptian Heliopolis.

Niagara-on-the-Lake or Niagara, town (1991 pop. 12,945), S Ont., Canada, on Lake Ontario at the mouth of the Niagara River. It was settled (1784) by American Loyalists and in 1792 Lieutenant Governor Simcoe made the town the capital of Upper Canada, renaming it Newark. The legislature met there until 1796. Fort George, built (1796-99) to defend the settlement, was taken in 1813 by the United States but retaken in the same year. The town, officially called Niagara-on-the-Lake to distinguish it from the Canadian and U.S. cities of Niagara Falls, is an architectural and historical treasure, with many well-preserved 19th-century buildings. It is the site of the Shaw Festival, an annual theater festival.

National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States: see under 9/11.

Montluçon, town (1990 pop. 46,660), Allier dept., central France, on the Cher River. Industry developed in the 19th cent. because of nearby coal fields in Commentry and iron-ore deposits around Berry. The southern terminal of the Berry Canal, which links the former Commentry coal fields with the Loire River, is at Montluçon. The area now produces electrical and metal products, tires, chemicals, furniture, and clothing. Points of interest include the Romanesque St. Pierre Church, the flamboyant Gothic church of Notre Dame, and many houses dating from the 15th and 16th cent.; the castle (15th-16th cent.) of the dukes of Bourbon now houses a crockery museum.

M'Ba, Léon, 1902-67, Gabonese political leader. He was a member of the dominant Fang ethnic group. When Gabon became a self-governing republic in the French Community (1958), he became (1959) its first prime minister. In 1961 he was elected as the country's first president, was briefly removed by a coup (1964), and then served until his death. Albert-Bernard Bongo was his handpicked successor.

Lyndon Baines Johnson Memorial Grove on the Potomac: see National Parks and Monuments (table).

Lamoricière, Christophe Léon Louis Juchault de, 1806-65, French general. Important in the conquest of Algeria, he distinguished himself at the head of his celebrated Zouaves and received (1847) the submission of Abd al-Kader. He was active in French politics after the February Revolution of 1848, but his opposition to Napoleon III led to his banishment (1852). In 1860, as commander of the papal army, he was routed by a superior Piedmontese force.

Jouhaux, Léon, 1879-1954, French Socialist labor leader. He headed the Confédération Générale du Travail from 1909 to 1947, when he resigned in protest against its alliance with Communist interests. In 1949 he helped found the anti-Communist International Confederation of Free Trade Unions. Long prominent in the International Labor Organization and active in the service of peace, Jouhaux received the 1951 Nobel Peace Prize. His works include studies on labor and on disarmament.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), scientific panel created (1988) by two United Nations organizations, the UN Environment Program and the World Meteorological Organization. Open to all member nations in these two groups, the IPCC was established to gather, assess, and make available objective scientific, technical, and socioeconomic information on human-induced climate change. Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the IPCC is governed by a general assembly. It does not conduct its own research, but, divided into three working groups and a task force, it gathers material on climate change from hundreds of scientists and other reputable experts, analyzing and summarizing it in periodic IPCC assessment reports. The panel also publishes special reports, methodology reports, technical papers, and supporting material. In 2007 the IPCC and Albert Gore, Jr. shared the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of their work to "disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundation for the measures that are needed to counteract such change."

Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, at Stanford, Calif. It was established in 1919 as the Hoover War Library by Herbert Hoover to extend his collection of documents of World War I, but its scope has been expanded to include source material on social and political developments arising from both world wars. Research, publication, and advanced study are conducted by the institution. It is located on the Stanford Univ. campus, but has no institutional tie to the university.

Gérôme, Jean Léon, 1824-1904, French historical and genre painter. He enjoyed a successful career in his day. He studied with Delaroche and adhered to academic technique. A good draftsman and facile illustrator, he produced a large number of paintings, meticulous in execution. In his last years he gave up painting for sculpture. His painting The Cock Fight (1847) is in the Louvre.

Gleizes, Albert Léon, 1881-1953, French cubist painter, illustrator, and writer. He was among the outstanding cubists in the Salon des Indépendants of 1911. Gleizes employed a rich palette in contrast to the essentially monochromatic effects of Braque and Picasso, and his work remained more representational than theirs. His painting is represented in the Museum of Modern Art, New York City. Gleizes was also well-known as an illustrator and as a writer on art. With Jean Metzinger, he wrote the first exposition of the principles of cubism in Du Cubisme (1912, tr. 1913).

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), former specialized agency of the United Nations. It was established in 1948 as an interim measure pending the creation of the International Trade Organization. However, plans for the latter were abandoned and GATT continued to exist until the end of 1995. Members of GATT were pledged to work together to reduce tariffs and other barriers to international trade and to eliminate discriminatory treatment in international commerce. The most important service of GATT was to negotiate multilateral extensions of tariff reductions through the application of the most-favored-nation clause. GATT also provided for regular meetings to consider other problems of international trade. An important GATT principle was that protection of domestic industries was to be done strictly through tariffs and not measures such as import quotas. The only exceptions permitted to GATT rules were those dealing with balance of payments difficulties, and these exceptions are carefully supervised. GATT provided the framework for most important international tariff negotiations from 1947 until 1994. The eighth, or Uruguay round, of GATT negotiations, which began in 1986 with 15 negotiating groups, was long stalemated by the issue of agricultural subsidies maintained by the European Community. The agreement that resulted (1994) from the Uruguay round led to the creation (1995) of the more powerful World Trade Organization (WTO) as a replacement for GATT. However, the GATT framework remained in place for a 12-month transition period.

Gambetta, Léon, 1838-82, French republican leader. A lawyer who achieved some note as an opponent of the Second Empire of Napoleon III, he was elected deputy in 1869 and joined the parliamentary opposition. After the Franco-Prussian War precipitated the downfall of the empire (1870), he became prominent in the provisional government. His organization of a government of national defense to drive out the Germans, his spectacular escape from Paris in a balloon, and his gallant opposition to the Prussian forces won worldwide sympathy. Gambetta bitterly fought French capitulation and briefly retired from politics, but after 1871 he devoted himself to the creation of the Third Republic. After the resignation of Adolphe Thiers as president, Gambetta pursued a policy of moderation and compromise and opposed both the radical republicans with whom he had been identified earlier in his career, and the monarchists and conservatives. He was influential in shaping the republican constitution of 1875, and as the real leader of the republican forces, he strove for unity against President MacMahon. Under President Grévy, Gambetta was briefly premier (1881-82), but his attempt to strengthen the executive power and to reconcile French political and social factions was unsuccessful, and his suggested electoral reform was widely denounced. He died soon after. A vigorous republican and patriot and a strong anticlerical, Gambetta was later highly revered.

Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon, 1819-68, French physicist. Known especially for his research on the speed of light, he determined its velocity in air and found that its speed in water and other media diminished in proportion to the index of refraction. He originated the Foucault pendulum, with which he demonstrated the earth's rotation. He also improved astronomical instruments, especially the telescope; invented (1852) the gyroscope; and investigated the eddy current (known also as the Foucault current), an electric current induced in metal by a moving magnetic field. With Armand Fizeau he took the first clear photograph of the sun. From 1855 he was physicist at the Paris Observatory.

Faidherbe, Louis Léon César, 1818-89, French colonial administrator. He was a leading participant in the establishment of the French colonial empire in Africa. As governor of Senegal (1854-61, 1863-65) he transformed the colony into the dominant political and military power in West Africa, founding (1857) the city of Dakar. He drove Hajj Omar out of Senegal, extending French control to The Gambia, but maintained the traditional authority of the chiefs. After living in Algeria for several years he was recalled to France during the Franco-Prussian War. He assumed command of the Army of the North after the fall of Sedan but saw the situation as hopeless. Elected to the National Assembly in 1871, he resigned in protest against anti-Republican politics. He was a senator from 1879 to 1888. Faidherbe wrote numerous works on geography, ethnography, and ethnology.

Daudet, Léon, 1867-1942, French author, most famous for his biting criticism of the Third Republic, and of democracy in general as editor of the right-wing daily Action Française with Charles Maurras. He served as a deputy from 1919 to 1924 but failed win election as a senator in 1927. He wrote a biography of his father, but his most valuable work is probably Souvenirs des milieux littéraires, politiques, artistiques et médicaux (6 vol., 1914-21, tr. of selections, Memoirs of Léon Daudet, 1925).

Damas, Léon (Léon-Gentran Damas), 1912-78, French poet, b. French Guiana. With Léopold Senghor and Aimé Césaire he was one of the first adherents of négritude, a cultural movement emphasizing black consciousness. His poetry mirrors his intense personality; it is agitated and syncopated in syntax and graphic representation on the page. Anthologies of his verse include Black Label (1956) and Pigments (1960). His African Songs of Love, War, Grief, and Abuse (1961) contains brief verses sympathetically portraying Guianan village life. He also published an autobiographical work, Return to Guiana (1938).

Code Napoléon or Code Civil, first modern legal code of France, promulgated by Napoleon I in 1804. The work of J. J. Cambacérès and a commission of four appointed by Napoleon I in 1800 was important in making the final draft. The Code Napoléon embodied the private law of France (i.e., law regulating relations between individuals) and, as modified by amendments, it is still in force in that country. It is a revised form of the Roman law, i.e., the civil law, which prevailed generally on the Continent. It shows, of course, many specific French modifications, some based on the Germanic law that had been in effect in N France. The code follows the Institutes of the Roman Corpus Juris Civilis in dividing civil law into personal status (e.g., marriage), property (e.g., easements), and the acquisition of property (e.g., wills), and it may be regarded as the first modern analogue to the Roman work. Not only was it applied by Napoleon to the territories under his control—N Italy, the Low Countries, and some of the German states—but it exerted a strong influence on Spain (and ultimately on the Latin American countries) and on all European countries except England. It was the forerunner, in France and elsewhere, of codifications of the other branches of law, including civil procedure, commercial law, and criminal law. Quebec prov. and the state of Louisiana owe much of their law to the Code Napoléon. In addition to the Code Civil, Napoleon was responsible for four other codes: the Code of Civil Procedure (1807), Commercial Code (1808), Code of Criminal Procedure (1811), and the Penal Code (1811).

Clacton-on-Sea, town (1991 pop. 39,618), Essex, E central England. It is a seaside resort situated on high cliffs. The Norman Church of St. John was restored there in 1865. Clacton-on-Sea is the area from which Clactonian tools, early flake instruments dating back to the early Interglacial stage, get their name.

Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon, 1699-1779, French painter. He was a major figure of 18th-century painting. While the Académie royale still advocated history painting as the noblest form of art, Chardin painted still lifes and domestic interiors. His ability to evoke textures was extraordinary, as were his muted tones, delicate touch, and unusually abstract compositional skill. His particular ability to render still-life forms naturalistically and simple genre scenes without sentimentality ensured his reputation. A number of modern schools of painting are indebted to the abstract nature of Chardin's compositions. The Louvre has many of his oils and pastel portraits, including Benediction and Return from Market. Blowing Bubbles and a portrait of Mme Chardin are at the Metropolitan Museum. Other paintings are in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., and in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Cañon City, city (1990 pop. 12,687), seat of Fremont co., S central Colo., at the mouth of the Grand Canyon of the Arkansas River (see Royal Gorge); laid out 1859 on the site of a blockhouse built (1807) by Zebulon M. Pike, inc. 1872. It is a health and tourist resort in a scenic area with mineral springs. Marble and limestone are quarried, and a variety of other minerals are found in the region. Tools and cement are manufactured. A state prison is located there.

Carrick-on-Shannon, small town, Co. Leitrim, N Republic of Ireland. Located beside the Shannon River, it is a farm market and a center for trout fishing.

Calmette, Léon Charles Albert, 1863-1933, French physician and bacteriologist. He was founder and director of the Pasteur institutes at Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City) and at Lille. From 1917 he was affiliated with the Pasteur Institute in Paris. He discovered a serum for snake bite, studied bubonic plague at Oporto, and with Alphonse Guérin introduced BCG, a tuberculosis vaccine. He wrote Recherches expérimentales sur la tuberculose (1907-14), Tuberculose chez l'homme et chez les animaux (1920; tr. 1923), and La Vaccination préventive … par le BCG (1927).

Brunschvicg, Léon, 1869-1944, French philosopher, b. Paris. From 1909 until his death he taught at the Sorbonne. Brunschvicg's philosophy, which has had considerable influence on modern European thought, is usually called critical idealism. He extended the teachings of Kant and Hegel and also drew upon Plato, Descartes, Spinoza, and Pascal. He regarded mathematics as the highest level yet reached by human thought and maintained that judgment preceded all other activities of the mind. For Brunschvicg, God was whatever enables us to live the life of the spirit. His principal works are La Modalité du jugement (1897); Les Étapes de la philosophie mathématique (1912); Le Progrès de la conscience dans la philosophie occidentale (2 vol., 1927); and La Raison et la religion (1939).

Bourgeois, Léon, 1851-1925, French statesman and social philosopher. He held cabinet posts, notably the premiership (1895-96) and was a delegate to the first and second Hague peace conferences and a member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague. One of the earliest proponents of the League of Nations, he headed the French delegation in the League. In 1920 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. His influential book, Solidarité (1896), advocated the use of public authority to achieve the solidarity increasingly necessary within and among nations.

Bonnat, Léon Joseph Florentin, 1833-c.1922, French portrait and historical painter. He is best known for his portraits of famous men, including Thiers, Victor Hugo, and Dumas fils. Bonnat is represented in the Metropolitan Museum.

Blum, Léon, 1872-1950, French Socialist leader and writer. Well established in literary circles, he entered politics during the Dreyfus Affair and rose to party leadership. In 1936 he brought about the coalition of Radical Socialists, Socialists, and Communists in the Popular Front, which won an overwhelming electoral victory. This first Popular Front government, which he headed, inaugurated the 40-hour week, collective bargaining, and compulsory arbitration; it also reorganized and nationalized the Bank of France; and nationalized the munitions industry. Conservative opposition to Blum's fiscal measures forced his resignation (1937). Blum served as vice premier (1937-38) under Camille Chautemps, was briefly premier in 1938, and opposed the Munich Pact. Arrested (1940) by the Vichy government, his Jewish origins made him a prime defendant in the abortive war-guilt trial at Riom in 1942. Blum was imprisoned until the end of the war. After negotiating (1946) a credit agreement with the United States, he was again premier for a little more than a month in 1946-47, heading an active Socialist cabinet. The elder statesman of French Socialists, Blum gradually came to represent the moderate wing. His writings include For All Mankind (tr. 1946, repr. 1969).

Bloy, Léon, 1846-1917, French writer. A Roman Catholic and a social reformer, Bloy wrote violent and vituperative attacks on religious conformism and bitter portraits of his life and friends. His works decry cruelty and injustice, and their fervor made them influential in Europe. They include the autobiographical novels Le Désespéré [the hopeless one] (1886) and La Femme pauvre (1897, tr. The Woman Who Was Poor, 1939); Salut par les Juifs (1892), a tribute to the Jews; and a vast body of correspondence.

Besançon, city (1990 pop. 119,134), capital of Doubs dept., E France, in Franche-Comté, on the Doubs. An industrial town with metallurgical, textile, and food-processing industries, it is especially famous for its clock and watch manufactures; its watch school is world renowned. Of Gallo-Roman origin, Besançon was an archiepiscopal see from the 5th cent. Although part of the kingdom of Burgundy, it was made (by Emperor Frederick I) a free city, with special privileges for its archbishops. It maintained its independence, with interruptions, until 1648, when it passed under Spanish rule through its incorporation with Franche-Comté. After Louis XIV's second conquest of Franche-Comté (1674), Besançon became (1676) the capital of his new province. Although bombed during World War II, many old monuments remain: Roman ruins, a cathedral (12th-16th cent.), and numerous buildings in Spanish Renaissance style, notably the Palais Granvelle (birthplace of Cardinal Granvelle, now housing a museum) and the imposing town hall. An intellectual center, Besançon is the seat of a university (founded 1422 in Dôle and moved to Besançon in 1691), a music academy (founded 1726), and an international music festival.

Alençon, François, duc d': see Francis, duke of Alençon and Anjou.

Alençon, town (1990 pop. 31,139), capital of Orne dept., N France, in Normandy, on the Sarthe and Briante rivers. A commercial center in a fertile farm area, it is particularly noted for its fine lace work, an industry which dates from the 17th cent. The town also has spinning mills, printing plants, sawmills, and quarries. Alençon was heavily damaged in World War II. Among its surviving structures are Notre Dame Church, with windows and a porch from the 16th cent.; the Gothic St. Leonard's Church (completed in 1505); and the Ozé House (15th cent.).

Accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the ventricles (cavities) of the brain. Hydrocephalus is caused by overproduction of CSF, congenital blockage that prevents drainage (see neural tube defect), or complications of head injuries or infections. Normally, CSF circulates through the brain and spinal cord and drains into the circulation. In infants and young children, hydrocephalus causes the brain and skull to enlarge because the fontanels have not yet closed. Without surgery to divert the excess fluid into the blood or abdomen, accumulating fluid eventually compresses the brain, causing convulsions, intellectual disability, and death.

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or job training or occupational training

Vocational instruction for employed persons, first used commonly in the developed world during World War II. Work-related training is necessary as new techniques, new methods, new tools, new synthetic materials, new sources of power, and increased uses of automation continue to bring extensive changes. The UN and its agencies contribute to training programs in developing countries. Seealso technical education.

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officially United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

Conference held in Rio de Janeiro (June 3–14, 1992) to reconcile worldwide economic development with environmental protection. It was the largest gathering of world leaders in history, with 117 heads of state and representatives of 178 countries. Biodiversity, global warming, sustainable development, and preservation of tropical rain forests were among the topics discussed. Five international agreements were signed amid tensions between the industrialized countries of the North and the poorer developing states of the South, who were reluctant to accept environmental restrictions without increased Northern economic aid. Follow-up meetings were held in 1997 at the UN General Assembly in New York and in 2002 in Johannesburg, S.Af. Seealso Rio Treaty.

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Town and unitary authority (pop., 2001: 160,256), geographic and historic county of Essex, southeastern England. It lies on the Thames estuary and the North Sea. The nearest seaside resort to London, it attracts millions of visitors, and there are many resident commuters. It is noted for its 1.3-mi (2.2-km) pier as well as its beaches and gardens; yachting is popular. A 12th-century priory houses a museum.

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(born Aug. 25, 1767, Decize, France—died July 28, 1794, Paris) French Revolutionary leader. In support of the French Revolution, he wrote the radical Esprit de la révolution et de la constitution de France (1791) and was elected to the National Convention in 1792. A close associate of Maximilien Robespierre and a member of the Committee of Public Safety, he was elected president of the Convention in 1793 and sponsored the Ventôse (March) Decrees, which confiscated property of the Revolution's enemies and redistributed it to the poor. He led the victorious attack against the Austrians at Fleurus (in modern Belgium). A fanatical leader of the Reign of Terror, he was arrested in the Thermidorian Reaction and guillotined.

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Series of international meetings of eminent scientists to discuss problems of nuclear weapons and world security. The first meeting was held in 1957 at the estate of Cyrus Eaton in Pugwash, Nova Scotia. The Pugwash organization was established to convene subsequent conferences to discuss arms control and disarmament; these were held in the Soviet Union, Britain, India, and the U.S., among other countries. The organization and its president and founding member, Joseph Rotblat (born 1908), received the 1995 Nobel Prize for Peace.

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biblical On

Ancient holy city, Egypt. The city, which is now mainly ruins lying northeast of Cairo, was the seat of worship of the Egyptian sun god Ra. Its great temple of Ra was second in size only to that of Amon at Thebes, and its priesthood wielded great influence. In the New Kingdom, the temple became the repository of royal records. The city's surviving monument is the obelisk of Sesostris I, the oldest in existence. Two obelisks erected there by Thutmose III and known as Cleopatra's Needles now stand on the Thames River embankment in London and in Central Park, New York City.

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(born Nov. 2, 1913, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died Oct. 20, 1994, Century City, Calif.) U.S. film actor. He toured with circuses as an acrobat in the 1930s and served in North Africa and Italy during World War II. He first appeared in movie houses in The Killers (1946), which made him a star. He was noted for his portrayals of physically tough, emotionally sensitive characters. Lancaster's many films include Come Back, Little Sheba (1952), From Here to Eternity (1953), The Rose Tattoo (1955), Sweet Smell of Success (1957), Elmer Gantry (1960, Academy Award), The Birdman of Alcatraz (1962), The Leopard (1963), Atlantic City (1981), Local Hero (1983), and Field of Dreams (1989).

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Set of multilateral trade agreements aimed at the abolition of quotas and the reduction of tariff duties among the signing nations. Originally signed by 23 countries at Geneva in 1947, GATT became the most effective instrument in the massive expansion of world trade in the later 20th century. By 1995, when GATT was replaced by the World Trade Organization (WTO), 125 nations had signed its agreements, which governed 90percnt of world trade. GATT's most important principle was trade without discrimination, in which member nations opened their markets equally to one another. Once a country and its largest trading partners agreed to reduce a tariff, that tariff cut was automatically extended to all GATT members. GATT also established uniform customs regulations and sought to eliminate import quotas. It sponsored many treaties that reduced tariffs, the last of which, signed in Uruguay in 1994, established the WTO.

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(born May 31, 1930, San Francisco, Calif., U.S.) U.S. actor and director. He won attention in the television series Rawhide (1959–66) before his roles in three of Sergio Leone's “spaghetti westerns” (1964–66) made him an international star. He returned to the U.S. for the successful Dirty Harry (1971), the first of a series of action films in which he played laconic and dangerous heroes. He combined directing with acting in films such as Play Misty for Me (1971), Pale Rider (1985), Unforgiven (1992, Academy Award), A Perfect World (1993), The Bridges of Madison County (1995), and Million Dollar Baby (2004, Academy Award). His interest in jazz led him to direct and produce Bird (1988), about Charlie Parker. His minimalist style of acting and direction garnered critical acclaim to accompany his long-established box-office success.

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(born Aug. 21, 1936, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—died Oct. 12, 1999, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. basketball player, one of the greatest offensive players in basketball history. The 7-ft 1-in. (2.16-m) Chamberlain played two years (1956–58) for the University of Kansas. “Wilt the Stilt” later played centre for the Philadelphia (later Golden State) Warriors (1959–65), the Philadelphia 76ers (1965–68), and the Los Angeles Lakers (1968–73). In the 1961–62 season he became the first player to score more than 4,000 points in regular-season NBA games, including a record 100 points in a single game (1962). He led the NBA in scoring seven consecutive years (1959–65) and in rebounding 11 times. He ranks first in career rebounds (23,924) and career rebounding average (22.9 per game).

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