foundation, institution through which private wealth is contributed and distributed for public purpose. Foundations have existed since Greek and Roman times, when they honored deities. During the Middle Ages in Europe the church had many foundations, and in the Arab lands the waqf, or pious endowment, developed with the growth of Islam. In modern times European foundations, generally smaller than their U.S. counterparts, have been closely regulated by the state (e.g., the Nobel prizes; see Nobel, Alfred Bernhard).

In the United States there were a few early foundations, notably those endowed by Benjamin Franklin in 1791 to provide funds for loans to "young married artificers of good character" and by James Smithson in 1846 for the establishment of the Smithsonian Institution; however, it was not until after the Civil War that foundations developed rapidly. Social disintegration in the South and the establishment of early foundations such as the Peabody Education Fund and the John F. Slater Fund (both designed to provide educational opportunities for African Americans in the South) promoted the movement. The rapid growth of northern industrial enterprise in the postbellum years brought with it an accumulation of huge private fortunes. By the turn of the century, persuasive preachers of the "social gospel" urged the wealthy to meet their charitable obligations to society. Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller, Sr., in the period 1896 to 1918, led the way in creating foundations that could distribute their enormous wealth in what was considered to be the most efficient and socially beneficent manner.

Favorable income tax laws in the 1940s further spurred philanthropic activity. During the early 1950s many American foundations were attacked by right-wing journalists and Congressmen; between 1950 and 1953 the House of Representatives conducted two separate investigations into "subversion and Communist penetration" of the nation's philanthropic foundations. Attacks on the foundations began to subside, however, with the passing of the so-called McCarthy era. Although a number of foundations have been restricted by their charters to specific philanthropic functions, the larger U.S. foundations have devoted themselves to broad areas (see separate articles on Lilly Endowment, Inc.; Ford Foundation; Rockefeller Foundation; Sloan Foundation; and Commonwealth Fund). The 1980s and 90s saw a doubling in the number of grantmaking foundations, including those developed by financier George Soros and Microsoft founder Bill Gates. Due in part to economic prosperity, foundation giving doubled between 1990 and 1998 to $19.5 billion. In 1997, the largest recipients of grant dollars were education, health, and human services.

See also philanthropy.

William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, philanthropic organization founded in 1966 by engineer and entrepeneur William R. Hewlett (1913-2001), co-founder of Hewlett-Packard, his wife, Flora Lamson Hewlett (1914-77), and their eldest son, Walter B. Hewlett (1944-). Headquartered in Menlo Park, Calif., it is one of the wealthiest foundations in the United States. Pledged to address social and environmental problems in the United States and the world, Hewlett concentrates its grant-giving activities on education, the environment, global development, the performing arts, and population. The foundation also makes grants to advance private philanthropy and to support organizations that serve disadvantaged communities in the San Francisco Bay area.

United States National Science Foundation: see National Science Foundation.

Sloan Foundation, fund established (1934) by automobile executive Alfred P. Sloan, Jr. as a philanthropic institution supporting research in various areas. In its early years it stressed support of U.S. economic education and research. After World War II its emphasis shifted in part to medical research, particularly cancer research. In the late 1960s its activities were expanded to include studies in current social problems, science, and technology. These interests, with the addition of a focus on the economy and its effects on standards of living, continued through the 1990s. The foundation has been a major financial supporter of the Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, established in 1945. In 1998 its endowment exceeded $1 billion.

Rockefeller Foundation, philanthropic institution established (1913) by John D. Rockefeller, Sr., to promote "the well-being of mankind throughout the world." During its first 14 years the foundation received $183 million from Rockefeller. He was aided in the early years of the foundation's activities by his son John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and Frederick T. Gates. Gates was instrumental in channeling its early philanthropic activities into medical research and education and public health. Outstanding contributions in the form of funds, research, and fieldwork were made by the foundation in the battle against hookworm, malaria, yellow fever, and other diseases throughout the world. Rockefeller Institute (later Rockefeller Univ.), a center for medical and biological research, was established; it became important in the reform of medical education in the United States. The foundation also helped finance relief measures after World War I. The consolidation (1929) of the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial (with its $58 million endowment) with the Rockefeller Foundation marked the organization's expansion into new areas of research including the natural and social sciences, humanities, and agriculture. The foundation financed the preparation of the Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (1932) and has helped support such independent research agencies as the National Bureau of Economic Research, the Brookings Institution, and the Social Science Research Council. The foundation focused its worldwide philanthropic activities on hunger, overpopulation, health care, equal opportunity, cultural improvement, and the environment, but in 1999 the organization revised its mission to concentrate almost exclusively on helping the world's poor. By 1999 its endowment was estimated to be $3 billion. Other philanthropic foundations maintained by members of the Rockefeller family are the Rockefeller Brothers Fund (est. 1940), and the Rockefeller Family Fund (est. 1967). The Martha Baird Rockefeller Fund for Music (est. 1962) was dissolved in 1982.

Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, charitable organization devoted exclusively to health care issues. It was established in 1936 by Robert Wood Johnson (1893-1968), board chairman of the Johnson & Johnson medical products company. The foundation grew in endowment and in the scope of its mission after it received (1971) the majority of Johnson's estate. Based in Princeton, N.J., the Johnson Foundation's basic mission is "to improve the health and health care of all Americans," and toward this end it supports training, education, research, and projects related to U.S. health-care services.

Packard Foundation: see David and Lucile Packard Foundation.

National Science Foundation (NSF), an independent agency in the executive branch of the U.S. federal government concerned with promoting a national science policy by supporting basic research and education in science. The National Science Board is the policy-making body of the NSF. It consists of 25 members appointed by the president with the consent of Congress. Founded in 1950, the NSF does not conduct research of its own but makes support grants to qualified educational and nonprofit institutions and awards fellowships to individual scientists, teachers, and students. The foundation supports projects in the mathematical, physical, medical, biological, social, and engineering sciences, including the U.S. Antarctic Program, the Ocean Drilling Program, and programs in global geoscience. It supports the development of improved science curriculum materials and fosters the interchange of scientific ideas nationally and internationally. Among the more important permanent NSF-supported facilities are: National Center for Atmospheric Research (Boulder, Colo.), National Radio Astronomy Observatory (Green Bank, W.Va.), Kitt Peak National Observatory (Tucson, Ariz.), National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center (Arecibo, Puerto Rico), and Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (La Serena, Chile).

Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation: see National Museum of the American Indian.

Mott Foundation, philanthropic trust created (1926) by automobile executive Charles Stewart Mott (1875-1973) to support programs dealing with selected urban problems. The foundation originally concentrated most of its activities in its home, Flint, Mich., where it continues to fund community-centered activities to promote education, health, and understanding in a time of great economic and social change. In addition to its Flint programs, the foundation funds programs to fight poverty and its effects, environmental conservation programs, and programs that encourage "free and pluralistic democratic societies," especially in the United States, the nations of the former USSR, and South Africa. In 1998 its endowment exceeded $2.3 billion.

Moore Foundation: see Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

Mellon Foundation, officially the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, philanthropic trust formed (1969) through the merger of the Avalon Foundation (est. 1940 by Ailsa Mellon Bruce) and the Old Dominion Foundation (est. 1941 by Paul Mellon). Prior to the merger, the Avalon Foundation distributed funds to hospitals and health agencies, educational institutions, and cultural programs including the Metropolitan Opera and the New York Philharmonic. The Old Dominion Fund concentrated on the humanities and liberal education. The merged foundation, with assets of $4.7 billion (2003), continues to support the areas of health, higher education, and the humanities (museums, art conservation, and performing arts), and has added programs in conservation and the environment and public affairs. Other philanthropic foundations endowed by members of the Mellon family include the Richard King Mellon Foundation (est. 1947) and the R. K. Mellon Family Foundation (est. 1978).

MacArthur Foundation: see John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation.

Kresge Foundation, fund established (1924) by retail chain store owner Sebastian S. Kresge (1867-1966) as a broad-purpose philanthropic institution. The foundation describes its policy as "to favor grants providing for the maintenance, expansion, or perpetuation of existing organizations over grants which look to the establishment or initiating of new organizations or experimental projects." Prior to the middle 1960s the foundation gave most of its support to colleges and universities, hospitals, religious institutions, and child welfare agencies in Michigan and the Northeast. Since then, however, there has been a wider geographic distribution of grants and a decrease in support to religious programs. Most assistance goes to the construction and maintenance of buildings or other major capital equipment. Given an initial endowment of $1.3 million, in 1998 the foundation had assets totaling $2.1 billion.

Kellogg Foundation, philanthropic institution established (1930) at Battle Creek, Mich., by food manufacturer W. K. Kellogg (1860-1951). Kellogg eventually gave the institution a total of $47 million, and by 1990 its endowment had increased to more than $3.5 billion. After World War II the foundation broadened its interests, formerly restricted to Michigan, to include support of agricultural, health, and education projects throughout the world, with an emphasis on activities in the Western Hemisphere. The foundation has concentrated on the application of knowledge rather than on basic research. See philanthropy.

Johnson Foundation: see Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.

John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, philanthropic institution founded 1978 by John D. MacArthur (1897-1978), owner of a prominent insurance company and other businesses, and his wife Catherine T. MacArthur (1909-81) in order to assist groups and individuals who might make lasting improvements in the human condition. Headquartered in Chicago, it has assets of roughly $5.5 billion. The foundation's Program on Global Security and Sustainability deals largely with international issues; the Program on Human and Community Development focuses mainly on the United States; and the General Program concentrates on public-interest media. The institution is best known for its Fellows Program, which makes the so-called "genius grants"—large five-year awards, given each year to 25 Americans in the arts, social sciences, education, and other fields to promote the development of their creative, intellectual, or professional ideas and projects. In 2006 the foundation initiated a grant program to build and strengthen relatively small nonprofit organizations worldwide that are deemed both creative and effective.

Hewlett Foundation: see William and Flora Hewlett Foundation.

Hartford Foundation, fund established (1929) by retail food merchants John A. Hartford (1872-1951) and George L. Hartford (1864-1957) of the Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company (A&P) as a philanthropic institution with the general purpose of doing "the greatest good for the greatest number." Incorporated in 1942, the foundation has concentrated on health care issues in general and, since the 1980s, on elder care specifically. The foundation helped bring about the clinical application of several lifesaving devices, particularly in connection with heart and kidney disease treatment. In 1997 its assets exceeded $497 million, and it disbursed approximately $16 million in grants.

Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, private philanthropic organization established in 2000 by Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel Corp., and his wife Betty. The foundation funds projects in science and environmental conservation as well as programs in and around San Francisco, where it is based. The majority of its grants are grouped in what the foundation calls initiatives: large-scale, multiyear projects focused on specific issues and intended to achieve significant, measurable, and lasting results.

Gates Foundation: see Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.

Ford Foundation, philanthropic institution, established (1936) in Michigan by Henry Ford and his son, Edsel, for the general purpose of advancing human welfare. Until 1950 the foundation was involved in local philanthropic activities, mainly aiding the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit and the Edison Institute of Dearborn. Since 1950, after receiving the bulk of the estates of Henry Ford, his wife, and Edsel, the foundation has engaged in broad philanthropic work from its New York City headquarters. It is one of the largest philanthropic trusts in the world. By 1998 it had assets of about $9.5 billion, and disbursed approximately $517 million in grants. The foundation's stated goals are to strengthen democratic values, reduce poverty and injustice, promote international cooperation, and advance human achievement. The Ford Foundation's involvement in controversial programs, such as its establishment (1951) of the civil rights and civil liberties oriented Fund for the Republic, drew criticism from conservatives and led to a congressional investigation. In attempting to maintain flexibility in its operations, the foundation concentrates on aiding efforts for the initial attack on problems, leaving the follow-up action to other institutions.

Dia Art Foundation, American foundation that supports contemporary art and artists, est. 1974 by art dealer Heiner Friedrich and his wife, art patron Philippa de Menil. The foundation, which commissions and purchases artworks, specializes in artists first recognized in the 1960s and 70s and younger artists working within the same aesthetic tradition, and has amassed a significant collection. Dia presents long-term exhibitions and site-specific installations and also funds such activities as lectures, poetry readings, and Web-based projects.

Dia operates two museums—Dia:Chelsea (est. 1987, formerly the Dia Center for the Arts) in New York City and Dia:Beacon (est. 2003), the world's largest contemporary art museum, in Beacon, N.Y. Both are large, but the Beacon site, where some galleries are devoted to a single artist, contain unusually huge unbroken spaces ideal for exhibiting the frequently monumental and often minimalist (see minimalism) art and large-scale installations Dia favors. The foundation also funds massive land art projects in other parts of the country, such as Donald Judd's installations at Marfa, Tex.; Michael Heizer's City in Nevada; James Turrell's Roden Crater in Arizona; and Walter De Maria's Lightning Field in New Mexico (see land art). Dia's permanent collection includes pivotal works by such artists as Joseph Beuys, Louise Bourgeois, John Chamberlain, Dan Flavin, Judd, Agnes Martin, Gerhard Richter, Richard Serra, and Andy Warhol.

David and Lucile Packard Foundation, private philanthropic institution that funds nonprofit organizations. It was founded in 1964 by David Packard (1912-96), co-founder of Hewlett-Packard Co., and his wife Lucile (1914-87). Headquartered in Los Altos, Calif., the foundation focuses on three program areas: conservation and science, with an emphasis on protecting and restorating the oceans, coasts, and atmosphere; population, with an emphasis on slowing world population growth and supporting reproductive health; and children, families, and communities, with an emphasis on children's education and health care. The Packard Foundation also supports various organizations in N California, provides funds to advance organizational effectiveness in its grantees, and works to improve private philanthropies.

Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, philanthropic institution founded in 1994 by Microsoft chairman Bill Gates and his wife, Melinda, to improve the lives of the poor throughout the world, primarily through grants for projects relating to global health care, education, libraries, and the Pacific Northwest. Known as the William H. Gates Foundation until 1999, it was merged in 2000 with the Gates Learning Foundation (earlier the Gates Library Foundation, est. 1997). The world's wealthiest charitable foundation, it had assets of more than $30 billion in 2006, when investor Warren Buffet donated an additional $31 billion. That year Bill Gates announced that, over the next two years, he would lessen his involvement with Microsoft in order to devote more time to the foundation. The Gates Foundation has its headquarters in Seattle, Wash. and is particularly noted for its efficient operation, accountability, and adherence to strict business practices.

Some 60% of foundation's resources are committed to global health programs, particularly in developing countries, focused mainly on the prevention of infectious diseases and the promotion of reproductive and child health. Particular areas of concern include HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, polio, and vaccine research and production. Support for American education is also significant, with programs frequently aimed at raising high school graduation rates; educational assistance is offered through school and research grants, professional development programs, scholarships, and other projects. Other programs provide libraries with Internet-ready computers, support endeavors benefitting the Pacific Northwest, and fund special projects.

Barnes Foundation, museum in Merion, Pa. Founded in 1922, it houses the impressive art collection amassed by Albert Coombs Barnes, 1872-1951, a wealthy Philadelphia physician, patent-medicine inventor, and pharmaceutical manufacturer. Introduced to art by a schoolmate, the painter William Glackens, Barnes acquired thousands of works of art and objects. The collection, which is particularly rich in impressionist and postimpressionist paintings, includes European and American moderns, Old Master paintings and drawings, African sculpture, American folk art, antiquities, Native American artifacts, antique furniture, and metal objects. Barnes, who scorned traditional museum practice, displayed his eclectic collection in a highly idiosyncratic fashion, envisioning it and the courses offered by the foundation as means of providing art education to the masses. He also wrote several books on art and carried on running feuds with various critics and museums. Ten years after his death the collection opened to the public on a regular basis. Barnes left control of his foundation to Lincoln Univ., an African-American institution in SE Pennsylvania, with the stipulation that the collection not be moved or altered. During the 1990s extreme tensions developed between the foundation's president and the university. In 2003, in a move to prevent foundation bankruptcy, Lincoln's board voted to relocate the collection to a new museum to be built in Philadelphia.

U.S. philanthropic foundation. It was established in 1936 with gifts and bequests from Henry Ford and his son, Edsel (1893–1943). By the early 21st century its assets exceeded $10 billion. Its chief concerns have been international affairs (particularly population control and alleviation of food shortages), humanities and the arts, communications (especially public television), and, in later years, resources and the environment.

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