extra

Extra-vehicular activity

Extra-vehicular activity (EVA) is work done by an astronaut away from the Earth and outside of a spacecraft. The term most commonly applies to an EVA made outside a craft orbiting Earth (a spacewalk) but also applies to an EVA made on the surface of the Moon (a moonwalk). In the later lunar landing missions (Apollo 15, 16, and 17) the command module pilot did an EVA to retrieve film canisters on the return trip; he was assisted by the lunar module pilot who would perform a stand up EVA. These trans-Earth EVAs were the only spacewalks ever conducted in deep space to date.

Due to the different designs of the early spacecraft, the American and Soviet space programs also define an EVA differently. Russians define an EVA as occurring when a cosmonaut is in a vacuum. An American astronaut EVA begins when the astronaut switches the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) to battery power. The term stand-up EVA (SEVA) is used for being partly outside.

EVAs may be either tethered (the astronaut is connected to the spacecraft, oxygen can be supplied through a tube, no propulsion is needed to return to the spacecraft) or untethered. When the tether performs life support functions such as providing oxygen, it is called an umbilical. Untethered spacewalks were only performed on three missions in 1984 using the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU), and on a flight test in 1994 of the Simplified Aid for EVA Rescue (SAFER). The latter is a safety device worn on tethered US EVAs, since the capability of returning to the spacecraft is essential. As of 2008, Russia, the United States and China are the only countries with the capability to conduct an EVA.

EVA milestones

The first EVA was carried out by Alexey Leonov on March 18, 1965 from the Voskhod 2 spacecraft.

The first EVA by an American astronaut was made on June 3, 1965 by Edward White during the Gemini 4 mission.

The first EVA that was a moonwalk rather than a spacewalk was made by American astronaut Neil Armstrong on July 20 1969 when the Apollo 11 Lunar Module Eagle landed on the Moon. He was joined by crewmate Buzz Aldrin, and their EVA lasted 2 hours and 32 minutes.

The first untethered spacewalk was by American astronaut Bruce McCandless II on February 7 1984, during Challenger mission STS-41-B. He was subsequently joined by astronaut Robert L. Stewart during the 5 hour 55 minute spacewalk.

The first woman to perform an EVA was Cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya on July 25 1984 while aboard the Salyut 7 space station. Her EVA lasted 3 hours and 35 minutes.

The first American woman to make an EVA was Kathryn D. Sullivan, who stepped into space on October 11 1984 during Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS-41-G.

The first (and only) three-person EVA was performed on May 13, 1992, as the third EVA of STS-49, the maiden flight of Endeavour. Pierre Thuot, Richard Hieb, and Thomas Akers conducted the EVA to capture and repair a non-functional Intelsat VI-F3 satellite, and equipped the satellite with a new motor, that after release, moved it into its planned geosynchronous orbit.

The first EVA by a non-Soviet, non-American astronaut was made on December 9 1988 by Jean-Loup Chrétien of France during a three-week stay on the Mir space station.

On February 9 1995, Bernard A. Harris, Jr. and Michael Foale became the first African American and the first Briton, respectively, to perform an EVA.

On April 22 2001, Chris Hadfield became the first Canadian to perform an EVA, while installing the Canadarm2 on to the International Space Station.

The first EVA to perform an in-flight repair of the space orbiter was by American astronaut Steve Robinson on August 3 2005, during "Return to Flight" mission STS-114. Robinson was sent to remove two protruding gap fillers on the Space Orbiter Discovery's heat shield, after engineers determined they might cause damage to the shuttle upon re-entry. Robinson successfully removed the loose material while the Discovery was docked to the International Space Station.

The longest EVA was 8 hours and 56 minutes, performed by Susan J. Helms and James S. Voss on March 11, 2001.

Anatoly Solovyev holds the record for most spacewalks (16), and total duration (82 hours, 22 minutes).

Captain Michael Lopez-Alegria holds the all time American record for number of EVA's (10), and for total EVA duration (67 hours and 40 minutes).

The first EVA by a Chinese astronaut was made on September 27, 2008 by Zhai Zhigang during Shenzhou 7 mission. Zhai Zhigang's spacewalk, using a Feitian space suit, made China the third country to independently carry out an EVA.

EVA hazards

An EVA is dangerous for a number of different reasons. The primary one is collision with space debris. Orbital velocity at 300 km above the Earth (typical for a space shuttle mission) is 7.7 km/s.

Every space mission creates more orbiting debris, so this problem will continue to worsen (see also Kessler Syndrome).

Another reason for danger is that external environments in space are harder to simulate before the mission, though approximate simulations can be achieved at facilities like the Hydro-lab in Star City's Gagarin Training Center and NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory. Space walks are avoided for routine tasks because of their danger. As a result the EVAs are often planned late in the project development when problems are discovered, or sometimes even during an operational mission. The exceptional danger involved in EVAs inevitably leads to emotional pressures on astronauts.

Other possible problems include a space walker becoming separated from his or her craft or suffering a spacesuit puncture which would depressurize the suit, causing anoxia and rapid death if the space walker is not brought into a pressurized spacecraft quickly.

One astronaut has suffered a spacesuit puncture. During STS-37, a small rod punctured the glove of one of the astronauts (the name is undisclosed, but it was either Jerry L. Ross or Jay Apt). However, the puncturing object held in place, resulting in no detectable depressurization. In fact, the puncture was not noticed until after the space walkers were safely back inside Atlantis.

Alexey Leonov's EVA did not pass smoothly either. During the EVA, Leonov's suit had become overinflated to the point he could no longer re-enter and seal the door of the airlock on Voskhod 2. Because he was breathing pure oxygen, he was able to reduce his suit pressure to under 4 psi (28 kPa) and, with much effort, climb back inside.

As of 2008, no catastrophic incident has ever occurred during an extra-vehicular activity, and no astronaut or cosmonaut has ever died during one. However, given the considerable hazards inherent in EVAs, and the resultant risk to astronauts, some scientists are working to develop tele-operated robots for outside construction work, to potentially eliminate or reduce the need for human EVAs.

Camp out

For EVAs from the space station, NASA now routinely employs a camp out procedure to reduce the risk of decompression sickness. This was first tested by the Expedition 12 crew. During a camp out, astronauts sleep overnight prior to an EVA in the airlock, and lower the air pressure to 10.2 psi (70 kPa), compared to the normal station pressure of 14.7 psi (101 kPa). Spending a night at the lower air pressure helps flush nitrogen from the body, thereby preventing "the bends".

2008 EVAs

This is a list of EVAs conducted or scheduled to be conducted in 2008.

Mission	Spacewalkers	Start (UTC)	End (UTC)	Duration	Notes
Expedition 16 EVA 5	Peggy Whitson Daniel M. Tani	January 30, 2008 09:56	January 30, 2008 17:06	7 hours, 10 minutes	Replaced the Bearing Motor Roll Ring Module (BMRRM) on one of the station's solar wings, inspection of Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ).

STS-122 EVA 1	Rex J. Walheim Stanley G. Love	February 11, 2008 14:13	February 11, 2008 22:11	7 hours, 58 minutes	Columbus power data grapple fixture installation, P1 truss nitrogen (N2) tank assembly preparation, power and data grapple fixture removal and installation to Columbus.
STS-122 EVA 2	Rex J. Walheim Hans Schlegel	February 13, 2008 14:27	February 13, 2008 21:12	6 hours, 45 minutes	P1 Truss Nitrogen (N2) tank assembly installation, stowage of old N2 tank assembly into payload bay, Station-to-Shuttle Power Transfer System (SSPTS) routing.
STS-122 EVA 3	Rex J. Walheim Stanley G. Love	February 15, 2008 13:07	February 15, 2008 20:32	7 hours, 25 minutes	Installation of SOLAR telescope, and EuTEF facility onto an External Stowage Platform (ESP) on Columbus, retrieval of failed Control Moment Gyroscope (CMG) that was replaced on STS-118 and stowed on ESP2, installation of failed CMG into payload bay, installation of keel pin cloth covers on Columbus.

STS-123 EVA 1	Richard M. Linnehan Garrett E. Reisman	March 14, 2008 01:18	March 14, 2008 08:19	7 hours, 1 minute	Installation of ELM-PS and Dextre assembly.
STS-123 EVA 2	Linnehan Michael J. Foreman	March 15, 2008 23:49	March 16, 2008 06:57	7 hours, 8 minutes	Dextre assembly (cont.).
STS-123 EVA 3	Linnehan Robert L. Behnken	March 17, 2008 22:51	March 18, 2008 05:44	6 hours, 53 minutes	Dextre assembly (cont.), prepare the Spacelab Logistics Pallet for landing, transfer a spare Canadarm2 yaw join, transfer two spare Direct Current Switching Units Mission and unsuccessful attempted installation of the MISSE 6 experiment on the exterior of the Columbus module.
STS-123 EVA 4	Behnken Foreman	March 20, 2008 22:04	March 21, 2008 04:28	6 hours, 24 minutes	Replacement of Remote Power Control Module and test of tile repair material. Removal of a sock covering the left hand of Dextre and some launch locks on Harmony. Release launch locks on Harmony’s port and nadir Common Berthing Mechanisms
STS-123 EVA 5	Behnken Foreman	March 22, 2008 20:34	March 23, 2008 02:36	6 hours, 02 minutes	Storage of Shuttle Orbiter Boom Sensor System on the Station, installation of ELM‐PS trunnion covers, removed five covers from the starboard SARJ and performed inspections, captured digital photography, successful installation of the MISSE 6 experiment on the exterior of the Columbus module and debris collection.

STS-124 EVA 1	Ronald J. Garan, Jr. Michael E. Fossum	June 3, 2008 16:22	June 3, 2008 23:10	6 hours, 48 minutes	Release straps on shuttle robotic arm elbow joint camera. Transfer OBSS back to the shuttle. Prepare Kibō for installation. Replace trundle bearing assembly on the starboard solar alpha rotary joint (SARJ). Inspect damage to SARJ. Test cleaning methods for use on the SARJ race ring.
STS-124 EVA 2	Garan Fossum	2008-06-05 15:04	2008-06-05 22:15	7 hours, 11 minutes	Installation of covers and external television equipment on the JEM and preparation of RMS. Preparation for relocation of ELM-PS. Prepare a depleted nitrogen tank assembly for removal and a new one stowed on an external stowage platform for installation. Remove television camera with a failed power supply.
STS-124 EVA 3	Garan Fossum	2008-06-08 13:55	2008-06-08 20:28	6 hr 33 min	Remove and replace starboard nitrogen tank assembly. Finish outfitting of Kibō laboratory. Reinstall removed television camera with repaired power supply.

Expedition 17 EVA 1	Sergei Volkov Oleg Kononenko	2008-07-10 18:48	2008-07-11 1:06	6 hr 18 min	Remove pyrotechnic bolt from docked Soyuz
Expedition 17 EVA 2	Volkov Kononenko	2008-07-15 17:08	2008-07-15 23:02	5 hr 54 min	Installation of a docking target on the Zvezda service module. Installation of Vsplesk experiment. Straightening of ham radio antenna. Retrieval of Biorisk experiment.

Shenzhou 7	Zhai Zhigang, Liu Boming (stand up only)	2008-09-27 08:38	2008-09-27 09:00	00 hr 22 min	First EVA conducted by China