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shōen

In Japan (circa 8th–15th century), a private, tax-free, often autonomous estate. As the shōen increased in numbers, they undermined the political and economic power of the central government and contributed to the growth of powerful local clans. Landowners would commend their parcels of land to powerful families or religious institutions with tax-free status, thereby obtaining that status for themselves. All people connected with the land—the powerful patron, the owner, and the estate manager—had rights to part of the income from the land. During the Kamakura period (1192–1333), the shogunate (military government) asserted authority over the shōen by inserting its own stewards (jitō) into each estate to collect taxes. During Japan's Warring States period, the shōen gave way to consolidated landholdings controlled by daimyo (domain lords). Seealso samurai.

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Encyclopedia Britannica, 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

Zhou Enlai

or Chou En-lai

(born March 5, 1898, Huai'an, Jiangsu province, China—died Jan. 8, 1976, Beijing) Chinese communist leader, premier from the founding of the People's Republic of China until his death (1949–76). Zhou became a communist during his studies abroad in France and was an organizer for the Chinese Communist Party in Europe. Like other communists, he worked with the Nationalists in the early 1920s and escaped capture when Chiang Kai-shek purged his former allies in 1927. He joined Zhu De and Mao Zedong in Jiangxi province and became political commissar of the Red Army. In the 1930s he negotiated a tactical alliance with the Nationalists to resist Japanese aggression. When the communists prevailed over the Nationalists in 1949, Zhou became premier of the new People's Republic of China. During the Cultural Revolution, Zhou helped restrain extremists; as the revolution waned in the early 1970s, he sought to restore Deng Xiaoping and other moderates to power. He is credited with arranging the historic meeting between U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon and Mao that paved the way for U.S. recognition of the communist government.

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Encyclopedia Britannica, 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

Aix-en-Provence

City (pop., 1999: 134,222), southeastern France. Founded as a military colony by the Romans circa 123 BC, it was the scene of the defeat of the Teutons by Marius in 102 BC. Visigoths, Franks, Lombards, and finally Muslim invaders from Spain successively plundered the town. As the capital of Provence, it was a centre of culture during the Middle Ages; it became part of France in 1486. It is now a residential suburb of Marseille; its industries include tourism, food processing, and the manufacturing of electrical machinery.

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Encyclopedia Britannica, 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

Emperor Go-En'yū

Emperor Go-En'yū (後円融天皇 Go-En'yū-tennō) (January 11, 1359 – June 6, 1393) was the fifth of the Ashikaga Pretenders during the period of two courts. According to pre-Meiji scholars, his reign spanned the years from 1371 through 1382.

This Nanboku-chō "sovereign" was named after the 10th century Emperor En'yū and go- (後), translates literally as "later;" and thus, he may be called the "Later Emperor En'yū". The Japanese word "go" has also been translated to mean the "second one;" and in some older sources, this would-be emperor may be identified as "En'yū, the second," or as "En'yū II."

Genealogy

His personal name was Ohito (緒仁).

He was the second son of the fourth Northern Pretender Emperor Go-Kōgon. His mother was Fujiwara Nakako (藤原仲子), daughter of Hirohashi Kanetsuna (広橋兼綱).

Consort: Itsuko (厳子), daughter of Sanjō Kimitada (三条公忠)

First son: Imperial Prince Motohito (幹仁親王) (Emperor Go-Komatsu)
First daughter: Imperial Princess Keiko (珪子内親王)

Lady-in-waiting Fujiwara Imako (藤原今子)

Second son: Imperial Prince ?? (道朝親王)

Events of Emperor Go-En'yū's life

He claimed the throne from April 9, 1371 to May 24, 1382

In 1371, by Imperial Proclamation, he received the rank of shinnō (親王), or Imperial Prince (and potential heir). Immediately afterwards, he became emperor upon the abdication of his father, Emperor Go-Kōgon. There was said to be a disagreement between Go-Kōgon and the retired Northern Emperor Emperor Sukō over the Crown Prince. With the support of Hosokawa Yoriyuki, who controlled the Bakufu, Go-Kōgon's son became the Northern Emperor.

Until 1374, Go-Kōgon ruled as cloistered emperor. In 1368, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was named Shōgun, and with his guardianship, the Imperial Court was stabilized. In 1382, upon abdicating to Emperor Go-Komatsu, his cloistered rule began. Having no actual power, he rebelled, attempting suicide and accusing Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and his consort Itsuko of adultery.

In 1392, peace with the Southern Court being concluded, the Period of the Northern and Southern Courts came to an end. On June 6, 1393, Go-En'yū died.