canning, process of hermetically sealing cooked food for future use. It is a preservation method, in which prepared food is put in glass jars or metal cans that are hermetically sealed to keep out air and then heated to a specific temperature for a specified time to destroy disease-causing microorganisms and prevent spoilage. Low-acid foods, such as meats, are heated to 240°-265°F; (116°-129°C;), while acidic foods, such as fruits, are heated to about 212°F; (100°C;). Canning was invented in 1809 by Nicholas Appert. The process proved moderately successful and was gradually put into practice in other European countries and in the United States. Glass containers were used at first, but they proved bulky, costly, and brittle. Early canmaking was slow and expensive; sheets of tin were cut with shears, bent around a block, and the seams heavily soldered. A good tinsmith could make only about 60 cans a day. The industry began to assume importance with the invention in 1847 of the stamped can. Because of the food requirements of soldiers during the U.S. Civil War, considerable amounts of canned meats and vegetables were produced. Salmon from the Columbia River was canned in 1866 and salmon from Alaska in 1872. A machine for shaping and soldering was exhibited in 1876 at the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia. The open-top can of the 20th cent., with a soldered lock seam and double-seamed ends, permits easy cleaning and filling. Cans used for foods that react with metals, causing discoloration (usually harmless), may be coated with a lacquer film. Highly specialized machinery, knowledge of bacteriology and food chemistry, as well as more efficient processes of cooking, have combined to make the commercial canning of food an important feature of modern life. The range of products canned has increased enormously and includes meat and poultry; fruits and vegetables; seafood; milk; and preserves, jams, jellies, pickles, and sauces. The general principles of commercial and home canning are the same, but the factory more accurately controls procedures and has highly specialized machinery. The Mason jar, popular in home canning, was patented in 1858. Home canning grew in popularity during World War II, when the harvest of "victory gardens" was canned. Canning leads to a loss of nutrient value in foods, particularly of the water-soluble vitamins. The home-canning methods recommended today are much more specific than the old-fashioned methods, which are no longer considered safe.

Stratford de Redcliffe, Stratford Canning, Viscount, 1786-1880, British diplomat. He entered (1807) the foreign office under the aegis of his cousin, George Canning. Sent (1808) to Turkey, he negotiated the Treaty of Bucharest (1812) between Turkey and Russia. He served in Switzerland (1814-18), at the Congress of Vienna, and in Washington (1819-23), where he negotiated concerning disputes arising from the War of 1812. In Turkey again (1825-29, 1831), he helped settle the frontier problem with Greece. After a period in Parliament he returned (1842) to Turkey, remaining with interruptions until 1858. Stratford exercised enormous influence over Sultan Abd al-Majid, but the documentary evidence does not support the belief of his contemporaries that he encouraged Turkish intransigence in the face of Russian demands in 1853 and thus brought on the Crimean War. He appears rather to have counseled moderation and attempted to avert the war. He was created a viscount in 1852.

Schiller, Ferdinand Canning Scott, 1864-1937, British philosopher. Schiller studied at Oxford and was professor of philosophy there (1897-1926) and at the Univ. of Southern California (1929-37). His philosophical position is closely related to the pragmatism of William James. Schiller called his system humanism, holding that "man is the measure of all things." Among his works are Riddles of the Sphinx (1891), Humanism (1912), Problems of Belief (1924), and Logic for Use (1929); Our Human Truths (1939), a collection of his last writings, was published posthumously.

Canning, Stratford: see Stratford de Redcliffe, Stratford Canning, Viscount.

Canning, George, 1770-1827, British statesman. Canning was converted to Toryism by the French Revolution, became a disciple of William Pitt, and was his undersecretary for foreign affairs (1796-99). To bring ridicule upon English radicals and Whigs who favored the Revolution, he contributed numerous articles to the Anti-Jacobin (1797-98). During the war against Napoleon I, he served as treasurer of the navy (1804-6) and was foreign minister (1807-9). He exerted great influence in military affairs, planning the seizure of the Danish fleet at Copenhagen (1807) and supporting British intervention in Spain and Portugal (see Peninsular War). However, he quarreled with Lord Castlereagh, and after a duel, in which Canning was wounded, both resigned from the ministry. He later served (1816-20) as president of the board of control for India, resigning in protest against the government's prosecution of Queen Caroline. Recalled to the foreign office after Castlereagh's suicide (1822), he reversed previous policy toward the Holy Alliance, refusing to cooperate in the suppression of European revolutions. He protested the decisions of the Congress of Verona (1822) and, although unable to prevent French intervention in Spain, later sent an army to Portugal to foil absolutist intervention there. His policies toward the Spanish colonies in America, whose independence he recognized, led to the promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine. He arranged the French-Russian-British agreement, which, after his death, resulted in Greek independence. After the resignation of Lord Liverpool, Canning became (Apr., 1827) prime minister, but he died four months later.

Canning, Charles John Canning, Earl, 1812-62, British statesman; third son of George Canning. Succeeding to the peerage conferred on his mother, he took his seat as Viscount Canning in the House of Lords (1837) and served as Sir Robert Peel's undersecretary for foreign affairs (1841-46) and Lord Aberdeen's postmaster general (1853-55). Appointed (1856) governor-general of India, he became known as "Clemency Canning" for his efforts to restrain revenge against the Indians during the Indian Mutiny. In 1858, when the power of government was transferred from the East India Company to the British crown, Canning became the first viceroy of India. He was created earl in 1859 and retired in 1862.

Method of preserving food from spoilage by storing it in containers that are hermetically sealed and then sterilized by heat. The process was invented in 1809 by Nicolas Appert (b. circa 1750—d. 1841) of France, who used glass bottles. In the 19th century tin-coated iron cans with soldered tops, bottoms, and seams were used, but in the early 20th century these were replaced by tin-plated steel containers with interlocking seams and polymer seals. In the later 20th century seamless aluminum cans (punched out from a single sheet) capped with a steel or aluminum lid became common, particularly in the beverage industry. In modern canning, food is passed under hot water or steam, transferred to a sterile container, sealed inside, and subjected to heat sufficient to kill any remaining microorganisms, cooking the food. The process preserves most nutrients but often affects consistency and taste.

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(born Nov. 4, 1786, London, Eng.—died Aug. 14, 1880, Frant, Sussex) British diplomat. A cousin of George Canning, he served as minister to Switzerland (1814–18) and later to the U.S. (1820–23). As ambassador to Constantinople intermittently for almost 20 years, he exerted a strong influence on Turkish policy. He was involved with the movement for Greek independence from Turkey. He later became friends with the Ottoman sultan and encouraged the Tanzimat program of reforms. He supported Turkish resistance to Russian attempts to influence Ottoman affairs and tried in vain to prevent the Crimean War. He retired after leaving Turkey in 1858.

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(born April 11, 1770, London, Eng.—died Aug. 8, 1827, Chiswick, near London) British politician. As a young man, he came under the influence of William Pitt, who helped him win a seat in Parliament (1793) and a post as undersecretary for foreign affairs (1796–99). Canning served twice as foreign secretary (1807–09, 1822–27); his policies included cutting England adrift from the Holy Alliance and recognizing the independence of the Spanish American colonies. He became prime minister in 1827 but died a few months later. He helped the Tory Party take a more liberal view on many questions of domestic, colonial, and foreign policy.

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(born April 11, 1770, London, Eng.—died Aug. 8, 1827, Chiswick, near London) British politician. As a young man, he came under the influence of William Pitt, who helped him win a seat in Parliament (1793) and a post as undersecretary for foreign affairs (1796–99). Canning served twice as foreign secretary (1807–09, 1822–27); his policies included cutting England adrift from the Holy Alliance and recognizing the independence of the Spanish American colonies. He became prime minister in 1827 but died a few months later. He helped the Tory Party take a more liberal view on many questions of domestic, colonial, and foreign policy.

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