analytic geometry

analytic geometry, branch of geometry in which points are represented with respect to a coordinate system, such as Cartesian coordinates, and in which the approach to geometric problems is primarily algebraic. Its most common application is in the representation of equations involving two or three variables as curves in two or three dimensions or surfaces in three dimensions. For example, the linear equation ax+by+c=0 represents a straight line in the xy-plane, and the linear equation ax+by+cz+d=0 represents a plane in space, where a, b, c, and d are constant numbers (coefficients). In this way a geometric problem can be translated into an algebraic problem and the methods of algebra brought to bear on its solution. Conversely, the solution of a problem in algebra, such as finding the roots of an equation or system of equations, can be estimated or sometimes given exactly by geometric means, e.g., plotting curves and surfaces and determining points of intersection.

In plane analytic geometry a line is frequently described in terms of its slope, which expresses its inclination to the coordinate axes; technically, the slope m of a straight line is the (trigonometric) tangent of the angle it makes with the x-axis. If the line is parallel to the x-axis, its slope is zero. Two or more lines with equal slopes are parallel to one another. In general, the slope of the line through the points (x₁, y₁) and (x₂, y₂) is given by m= (y₂-y₁) / (x₂-x₁). The conic sections are treated in analytic geometry as the curves corresponding to the general quadratic equation ax²+bxy+cy²+dx+ey+f=0, where a, b, … , f are constants and a, b, and c are not all zero.

In solid analytic geometry the orientation of a straight line is given not by one slope but by its direction cosines, λ, μ, and ν, the cosines of the angles the line makes with the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively; these satisfy the relationship λ²+μ²+ν²= 1. In the same way that the conic sections are studied in two dimensions, the 17 quadric surfaces, e.g., the ellipsoid, paraboloid, and elliptic paraboloid, are studied in solid analytic geometry in terms of the general equation ax²+by²+cz²+dxy+exz+fyz+px+qy+rz+s=0.

The methods of analytic geometry have been generalized to four or more dimensions and have been combined with other branches of geometry. Analytic geometry was introduced by René Descartes in 1637 and was of fundamental importance in the development of the calculus by Sir Isaac Newton and G. W. Leibniz in the late 17th cent. More recently it has served as the basis for the modern development and exploitation of algebraic geometry.

Investigation of geometric objects using coordinate systems. Because René Descartes was the first to apply algebra to geometry, it is also known as Cartesian geometry. It springs from the idea that any point in two-dimensional space can be represented by two numbers and any point in three-dimensional space by three. Because lines, circles, spheres, and other figures can be thought of as collections of points in space that satisfy certain equations, they can be explored via equations and formulas rather than graphs. Most of analytic geometry deals with the conic sections. Because these are defined using the notion of fixed distance, each section can be represented by a general equation derived from the distance formula.

Learn more about analytic geometry with a free trial on Britannica.com.

Analytic geometry, also called coordinate geometry and earlier referred to as Cartesian geometry or analytical geometry, is the study of geometry using the principles of algebra. That the algebra of the real numbers can be employed to yield results about the linear continuum of geometry relies on the Cantor-Dedekind axiom. Usually the Cartesian coordinate system is applied to manipulate equations for planes, straight lines, and squares, often in two and sometimes in three dimensions of measurement. As taught in school books, analytic geometry can be explained more simply: it is concerned with defining geometrical shapes in a numerical way and extracting numerical information from that representation. The numerical output, however, might also be a vector or a shape. Some consider that the introduction of analytic geometry was the beginning of modern mathematics.

History

The Greek mathematician Menaechmus, solved problems and proved theorems by using a method that had a strong resemblance to the use of coordinates and it has sometimes been maintained that he had analytic geometry.[1] Apollonius of Perga, in On Determinate Section dealt with problems in a manner that may be called an analytic geometry of one dimension; with the question of finding points on a line that were in a ratio to the others.[2] Apollonius in the Conics further developed a method that is so similar to analytic geometry that his work is sometimes thought to have anticipated the work of Descartes by some 1800 years. His application of reference lines, a diameter and a tangent is essentially no different than our modern use of a coordinate frame, where the distances measured along the diameter from the point of tangency are the abscissas, and the segments parallel to the tangent and intercepted between the axis and the curve are the ordinates. He further developed relations between the abscissas and the corresponding ordinates that are equivalent to rhetorical equations of curves. However, although Apollonius came close to developing analytic geometry, he did not manage to do so since he did not take into account negative magnitudes and in every case the coordinate system was superimposed upon a given curve a posteriori instead of a priori. That is, equations were determined by curves, but curves were not determined by equations. Coordinates, variables, and equations were subsidiary notions applied to a specific geometric situation.[3]

The eleventh century Persian mathematician Omar Khayyám saw a strong relationship between geometry and algebra, and was moving in the right direction when he helped to close the gap between numerical and geometric algebra[4] with his geometric solution of the general cubic equations,[5] but the decisive step came later with Descartes.[4]

Analytic geometry has traditionally been attributed to René Descartes[4][6][7] who made significant progress with the methods of analytic geometry when in 1637 in the appendix entitled Geometry of the titled Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason in the Search for Truth in the Sciences, commonly referred to as Discourse on Method. This work, written in his native French tongue, and its philosophical principles, provided the foundation for calculus in Europe.

Abraham de Moivre also pioneered the development of analytic geometry. With the assumption of the Cantor-Dedekind axiom, essentially that Euclidean geometry is interpretable in the language of analytic geometry (that is, every theorem of one is a theorem of the other), Alfred Tarski's proof of the decidability of the ordered real field could be seen as a proof that Euclidean geometry is consistent and decidable.

Themes

Important themes of analytical geometry are

• vector space
• definition of the plane
• distance problems
• the dot product, to get the angle of two vectors
• the cross product, to get a perpendicular vector of two known vectors (and also their spatial volume)
• intersection problems

Many of these problems involve linear algebra.

Example

Here an example of a problem from the United States of America Mathematical Talent Search that can be solved via analytic geometry:

Problem: In a convex pentagon $ABCDE$, the sides have lengths $1$, $2$, $3$, $4$, and $5$, though not necessarily in that order. Let $F$, $G$, $H$, and $I$ be the midpoints of the sides $AB$, $BC$, $CD$, and $DE$, respectively. Let $X$ be the midpoint of segment $FH$, and $Y$ be the midpoint of segment $GI$. The length of segment $XY$ is an integer. Find all possible values for the length of side $AE$.

Solution: Let $A$, $B$, $C$, $D$, and $E$ be located at $A(0,0)$, $B(a,0)$, $C(b,e)$, $D(c,f)$, and $E(d,g)$.

Using the midpoint formula, the points $F$, $G$, $H$, $I$, $X$, and $Y$ are located at

$Fleft(frac\{a\}\{2\},0right)$, $Gleft(frac\{a+b\}\{2\},frac\{e\}\{2\}right)$, $Hleft(frac\{b+c\}\{2\},frac\{e+f\}\{2\}right)$, $Ileft(frac\{c+d\}\{2\},frac\{f+g\}\{2\}right)$, $Xleft(frac\{a+b+c\}\{4\},frac\{e+f\}\{4\}right)$, and $Yleft(frac\{a+b+c+d\}\{4\},frac\{e+f+g\}\{4\}right).$

Using the distance formula,

$AE=sqrt\{d^2+g^2\}$

and

$XY=sqrt\{frac\{d^2\}\{16\}+frac\{g^2\}\{16\}\}=frac\{sqrt\{d^2+g^2\}\}\{4\}.$

Since $XY$ has to be an integer,

$AEequiv\; 0pmod\{4\}$

(see modular arithmetic) so $AE=4$.

Other uses

Analytic geometry, for algebraic geometers, is also the name for the theory of (real or) complex manifolds and the more general analytic spaces defined locally by the vanishing of analytic functions of several complex variables (or sometimes real ones). It is closely linked to algebraic geometry, especially through the work of Jean-Pierre Serre in GAGA.

References

External links

• Coordinate Geometry topics with interactive animations
• Build analytic geometry objects