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353 results for: hydrogen
| Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1) | Cite This Source |
Audio Help [hahy-druh-juhn] Pronunciation Key | a colorless, odorless, flammable gas that combines chemically with oxygen to form water: the lightest of the known elements. Symbol: H; atomic weight: 1.00797; atomic number: 1; density: 0.0899 g/l at 0°C and 760 mm pressure. |
| Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1) Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2006. |
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| Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia | Cite This Source |
hydrogen [Gr.,=water forming], gaseous chemical element; symbol H; at. no. 1; at. wt. 1.00794; m.p. -259.14°C;; b.p. -252.87°C;; density 0.08988 grams per liter at STP; valence usually +1.
The Isotopes and Forms
Atmospheric hydrogen is a mixture of three isotopes. The most common is called protium (mass no. 1, atomic mass 1.007822); the protium nucleus (protium ion) is a proton. A second isotope of hydrogen is deuterium (mass no. 2, atomic mass 2.0140), the so-called heavy hydrogen, often represented in chemical formulas by the symbol D. The deuterium nucleus, or ion, is called the deuteron; it consists of a proton plus a neutron. The two isotopes are found in atmospheric hydrogen in the proportion of about 1 atom of deuterium to every 6,700 atoms of protium. Protium and deuterium differ slightly in their chemical and physical properties; for example, the boiling point of deuterium is about 3°C; lower than protium. The properties of compounds they form differ depending on the ratio of the two isotopes present.
Deuterium oxide (D2O), the so-called heavy water, is present in ordinary water; the concentration of deuterium oxide is increased by electrolysis of the water. The melting point (3.79°C;), boiling point (101.4°C;), and specific gravity (1.107 at 25°C;) of deuterium oxide are higher than those of ordinary water. Deuterium oxide is used as a moderator in nuclear reactors. Deuterium is also of importance because of the wide use it has found in scientific research; for example, chemical reaction mechanisms have been studied by the use of deuterium atoms as tracers (i.e., deuterium is substituted for atoms of ordinary hydrogen in compounds), making it possible to follow the course of individual molecules in a reaction.
Tritium (mass no. 3, atomic mass 3.016), a third hydrogen isotope, is a radioactive gas with a half-life of about 121/4 years; it is often represented in chemical formulas by the symbol T. It is produced in nuclear reactors and occurs to a very limited extent in atmospheric hydrogen. It is used in the hydrogen bomb, in luminous paints, and as a tracer. The tritium nucleus, or ion, is called the triton; it consists of a proton plus two neutrons. Tritium oxide (T2O) has a melting point (4.49°C;) higher than that of deuterium oxide.
Besides being a mixture of three isotopes, hydrogen is a mixture of two forms, an ortho form and a para form, which differ in their electronic and nuclear spins. At room temperature atmospheric hydrogen is about 3/4 ortho-hydrogen and 1/4 para-hydrogen. The two forms differ slightly in their physical properties.
Properties
Under ordinary conditions hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that is only slightly soluble in water; it is the least dense gas known. It is the first element in Group 1 of the periodic table. Ordinary hydrogen gas is made up of diatomic molecules (H2) that react with oxygen to form water (H2O) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), usually as a result of combustion. A jet of hydrogen burns in air with a very hot blue flame. The flame produced by a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases (as in the oxyhydrogen blowpipe) is extremely hot and is used in welding and to melt quartz and certain glasses. Hydrogen gas must be used with caution because it is highly flammable; it forms easily ignited explosive mixtures with oxygen or with air (because of the oxygen in the air). At high temperatures hydrogen is a chemically active mixture of monohydrogen (atomic hydrogen) and the normal diatomic hydrogen (see allotropy).
Hydrogen has a great affinity for oxygen and is a powerful reducing agent (see oxidation and reduction). It reacts with nitrogen to form ammonia. With the halogens it forms compounds (hydrogen halides) that are strongly acidic in water solution. With sulfur it forms hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a colorless gas with an odor like rotten eggs; with sulfur and oxygen it forms sulfuric acid. It combines with several metals to form metal hydrides such as calcium hydride. Combined with carbon (and usually other elements) it is a constituent of a great many organic compounds, such as hydrocarbons, carbohydrates, fats, oils, proteins, and organic acids and bases.
It is theoretically possible for hydrogen to exhibit the properties of a metal, such as electrical conductivity. Although researchers have been able to squeeze hydrogen into liquid and crystalline solid states through applications of intense heat, cold, and pressure, the metallic form eluded them until 1996. By compressing liquid hydrogen to nearly 2 million atmospheres pressure and a temperature of 4,400°K;, a team at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory created metallic hydrogen for a millionth of a second. While there is no practical application for the accomplishment, proof of the existence of a metallic form of hydrogen may have implications for theories of how Jupiter's magnetic field is produced.
Sources and Commercial Preparation
While hydrogen is only about one part per million in the atmosphere, it is the most abundant element in the universe. It is believed that hydrogen makes up about three quarters of the mass of the universe, or over 90% of the molecules. It is found in the sun and in other stars, where it is the major fuel in the fusion reactions (see nucleosynthesis) from which stars derive their energy.
Hydrogen is prepared commercially by catalytic reaction of steam with hydrocarbons, by the reaction of steam with hot coke (carbon), by the electrolysis of water, and by the reaction of mineral acids on metals. Millions of cubic feet of hydrogen gas are produced daily in the United States alone.
Uses
Hydrogen was formerly used for filling balloons, airships, and other lighter-than-air craft, a dangerous practice because of hydrogen's explosive flammability; there were disastrous fires, e.g., the immolation of the German airship Hindenburg at its mooring at Lakehurst, N.J., in 1937. Helium is preferable for use in lighter-than-air craft since it is not flammable. Hydrogen is used in the Haber process for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, in the production of methanol, and in hydrogenation of fats and oils. It is also important in low-temperature research. It can be liquefied under pressure and cooled; when the pressure is released, rapid evaporation takes place and some of the hydrogen solidifies.
Discovery of Hydrogen and Its Isotopes
Although hydrogen was prepared many years earlier, it was first recognized as a substance distinct from other flammable gases in 1766 by Henry Cavendish, who is credited with its discovery; it was named by A. L. Lavoisier in 1783. Deuterium was discovered by H. C. Urey, F. G. Brickwedde, and G. M. Murphy in 1932, although its existence had been suspected for some years. Deuterium oxide was also discovered by Urey and was first obtained in nearly pure form by G. N. Lewis. Tritium was synthesized by Ernest Rutherford, L. E. Oliphant, and Paul Harteck in 1935.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Copyright © 2004, Columbia University Press.
Licensed from Columbia University Press
| Chemical Elements: From Carbon to Krypton | Cite This Source |
Overview
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. Nearly nine out of every ten atoms in the universe are hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen is also common on the Earth. It is the third most abundant element after oxygen and silicon. About 15 percent of all the atoms found on the Earth are hydrogen atoms.
Hydrogen is also the simplest of all elements. Its atoms consist (usually) of one proton and one electron.
Hydrogen was first discovered in 1766 by English chemist and physicist Henry Cavendish (1731-1810). Cavendish was also the first person to prove that water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen.
Some experts believe that hydrogen forms more compounds than any other element. These compounds include water, sucrose (table sugar), alcohols, vinegar (acetic acid), household lye (sodium hydroxide), drugs, fibers, dyes, plastics, and fuels.
Discovery and naming
Hydrogen was probably "discovered" many times. Many early chemists reported finding a "flammable gas" in some of their experiments. In 1671, for example, English chemist Robert Boyle (1627-91) described experiments in which he added iron to hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In both cases, a gas that burned easily with a pale blue flame was produced.
The problem with these early discoveries was that chemists did not understand the nature of gases very well. They had not learned that there are many kinds of gases. They thought that all the "gases" they saw were some form of air with impurities in it.
Cavendish discovered hydrogen in experiments like those that Boyle performed. He added iron metal to different acids and found that a flammable gas was produced. But Cavendish thought the flammable gas came from the iron and not from the acid. Chemists later showed that iron is an element and does not contain hydrogen or anything else. Therefore, the hydrogen in Cavendish's experiment came from the acid:
Hydrogen was named by French chemist Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743-94). Lavoisier is sometimes called the father of modern chemistry because of his many contributions to the science. Lavoisier suggested the name hydrogen after the Greek word for "water former" (that which forms water). (See sidebar on Lavoisier in the oxygen entry in volume 2.)
Physical properties
Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. Its density is the lowest of any chemical element, 0.08999 grams per liter. By comparison, a liter of air weighs 1.29 grams, 14 times as much as a liter of hydrogen.
Hydrogen changes from a gas to a liquid at a temperature of -252.77°C (-422.99°F) and from a liquid to a solid at a temperature of -259.2°C (-434.6°F). It is slightly soluble in water, alcohol, and a few other common liquids.
Chemical properties
Hydrogen burns in air or oxygen to produce water:
It also combines readily with other non-metals, such as sulfur, phosphorus, and the halogens. The halogens are the elements that make up Group 17 (VIIA) of the periodic table. They include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. As an example:
Occurrence in nature
Hydrogen occurs throughout the universe in two forms. First, it occurs in stars. Stars use hydrogen as a fuel with which to produce energy. The process by which stars use hydrogen is known as fusion. Fusion is the process by which two or more small atoms are pushed together to make one large atom. In most stars, the primary fusion reaction that occurs is:
This equation shows that four hydrogen atoms are squeezed together (fused) to make one helium atom. In this process, enormous amounts of energy are released in the form of heat and light.
Hydrogen also occurs in the "empty" spaces between stars. At one time, scientists thought that this space was really empty, that it contained no atoms of any kind. But, in fact, this interstellar space (space between stars) contains a small number of atoms, most of which are hydrogen atoms. A cubic mile of interstellar space usually contains no more than a handful of hydrogen and other atoms.
Hydrogen occurs on the Earth primarily in the form of water. Every molecule of water (H2O) contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Hydrogen is also found in many rocks and minerals. Its abundance is estimated to be about 1,500 parts per million. That makes hydrogen the tenth most abundant element in the Earth's crust.
Hydrogen also occurs to a very small extent in the Earth's atmosphere. Its abundance there is estimated to be about0.000055 percent. Hydrogen is not abundant in the atmosphere because it has such a low density. The Earth's gravity is not able to hold on to hydrogen atoms very well. They float away into outer space very easily. Most of the hydrogen that was once in the atmosphere has now escaped into outer space.
Isotopes
There are three isotopes of hydrogen, hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2, and hydrogen-3. Isotopes are two or more forms of an element. Isotopes differ from each other according to their mass number. The number written to the right of the element's name is the mass number. The mass number represents the number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of the element. The number of protons determines the element, but the number of neutrons in the atom of any one element can vary. Each variation is an isotope.
The three isotopes of hydrogen have special names. Hydrogen-1 is sometimes called protium. It is the simplest and most common form of hydrogen. Protium atoms all contain one proton and one electron. About 99.9844 percent of the hydrogen in nature is protium.
Hydrogen-2 is known as deuterium. A deuterium atom contains one proton, one electron, and one neutron. About 0.0156 percent of the hydrogen in nature is deuterium.
The third isotope of hydrogen, hydrogen-3, is tritium. An atom of tritium contains one proton, one electron, and two neutrons. There are only very small traces of tritium in nature.
Tritium is a radioactive isotope. A radioactive isotope is one that breaks apart and gives off some form of radiation. Some radioactive isotopes (such as tritium) occur in nature. They can also be produced in the laboratory. Very small particles are fired at atoms. These particles stick in the atoms and make them radioactive. Tritium is a widely used isotope and is now made in large amounts in the laboratory.
Tritium is widely used as a tracer in both industry and research. A tracer is a radioactive isotope whose presence in a system can easily be detected. The isotope is injected into the system at some point. Inside the system, the isotope gives off radiation. That radiation can be followed by means of detectors placed around the system.
Tritium is popular as a tracer because hydrogen occurs in so many different compounds. For example, suppose a scientist wants to trace the movement of water through soil. The scientist can make up a sample of water made with tritium instead of protium. As that water moves through the soil, its path can be followed by means of the radioactivity the tritium gives off.
Tritium is also used in the manufacture of fusion bombs. A fusion bomb is also known as a hydrogen bomb. In a fusion bomb, small atoms are squeezed together (fused) to make a larger atom. In the process, enormous amounts of energy are given off. For example, the first fusion bomb tested by the United States in 1952 had the explosive power of 15 million tons of TNT. A type of fusion bomb fuses tritium with deuterium to make helium atoms:
Extraction
The obvious source for hydrogen is water. The Earth has enough water to supply people's need for hydrogen. The problem is that it takes a lot of energy to split a water molecule:
In fact, it simply costs too much to make hydrogen by this method. The cost of electricity is too high. So it is not economical to make hydrogen by splitting water.
A number of other methods can be used to produce hydrogen, however. For example, steam can be passed over hot charcoal (nearly pure carbon):
The same reaction can be used with steam and other carbon compounds. For example, using methane, or natural gas (CH4), the reaction is:
Hydrogen can also be made by the reaction between carbon monoxide (CO) and steam:
Because hydrogen is such an important element, many other methods for producing it have been invented. However, the preceding methods are the least expensive.
Uses
The most important single use of hydrogen is in the manufacture of ammonia (NH3). Ammonia is made by combining hydrogen and nitrogen at high pressure and temperature in the presence of a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance used to speed up or slow down a chemical reaction. The catalyst does not undergo any change during the reaction:
Ammonia is a very important compound. It is used in making many products, the most important of which is fertilizer.
Hydrogen is also used for a number of similar reactions. For example, it can be combined with carbon monoxide to make methanol—methyl alcohol, or wood alcohol (CH3OH):
Like ammonia, methanol has a great many practical uses in a variety of industries. The most important use of methanol is in the manufacture of other chemicals, such as those from which plastics are made. Small amounts are used as additives to gasoline to reduce the amount of pollution released to the environment. Methanol is also used widely as a solvent (to dissolve other materials) in industry.
Another important use of hydrogen is in the production of pure metals. Hydrogen gas is passed over a hot metal oxide to produce the pure metal. For example, molybdenum can be prepared by passing hydrogen over hot molybdenum oxide:
Hydrogenation is an important procedure to the food industry. In hydrogenation, hydrogen is chemically added to another substance. The reaction between carbon monoxide and hydrogen is an example of hydrogenation. Liquid oils are often hydrogenated. Hydrogenation changes the liquid oil to a solid fat. Most kitchens contain foods with hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated oils. Vegetable shortening, such as Crisco, is a good example. Hydrogenation makes it easier to pack and transport oils.
Hydrogen is also used in oxyhydrogen ("oxygen + hydrogen") and atomic hydrogen torches. These torches produce temperatures of a few thousand degrees. At these temperatures, it is possible to cut through steel and most other metals. These torches can also be used to weld (join together with heat) two metals.
Another use for hydrogen is in Lighter-than-air balloons. Hydrogen is the least dense of all gases. So a balloon filled with hydrogen can lift very large loads. Such balloons are not used to carry people. The danger of fire or explosion is too great. On May 6, 1937, a hydrogen fire destroyed the German airship Hindenburg, as it was landing in Lakehurst, New Jersey; 36 people died. Today, hydrogen balloons are used for lifting weather instruments into the upper atmosphere.
One of the best known uses of hydrogen is as a rocket fuel. Many rockets obtain the power they need for lift-off by burning oxygen and hydrogen in a closed tank. The energy produced by this reaction provides thrust to the rocket.
Compounds
Millions of hydrogen compounds are known. One of the most important groups of hydrogen compounds is the acids. An acid is any compound that contains hydrogen as its positive part. Common acids include: hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), acetic acid (HC2H3O2), phosphoric acid (H3PO4), and hydrofluoric acid (HF).
Acids are present in thousands of natural substances and artificial products. The following list gives a few examples: vinegar, or acetic acid (HC2H3O2); sour milk, or lactic acid (C3H6O3); lemons and other citrus fruits, or citric acid (C6H8O7); soda water, or carbonic acid (H2CO3); battery acid, or sulfuric acid H2SO4); and boric acid (H3BO3).
Health effects
Hydrogen is essential to every plant and animal. Nearly every compound in a living cell contains hydrogen. It is harmless to humans unless taken in very large amounts. In this case, it is dangerous only because it cuts off the supply of oxygen humans need to breathe.
Chemical Elements: From Carbon to Krypton
Copyright © 1999 by The Gale Group.
Published by The Gale Group. All rights reserved, including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form.
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