Licensed from Columbia University Press
Licensed from Columbia University Press
The process of forgetting was first studied scientifically by Hermann Ebbinghaus, a German experimental psychologist, who performed memory tests with groups of nonsense syllables (disconnected syllables without associative connection). Ebbinghaus showed that the rate of forgetting is greatest at first, gradually diminishing until a relatively constant level of retained information is reached. Theories to explain forgetting include the concept of disuse, which proposes that forgetting occurs because stored information is not used, and that of interference, which suggests that old information interferes with information learned later and new information interferes with previously learned information.
In some instances, memory loss is an organic, physiological process. Retrograde amnesia, i.e., the failure to remember events preceding a head injury, is evidence of interrupted consolidation of memory. In anterograde amnesia, events occurring after brain damage—e.g., in head injury or alcoholism—may be forgotten. Memory loss may also result from brain cell deterioration following a series of strokes, cardiovascular disease, or Alzheimer's disease (see dementia).
Physiologically, learning involves modification of neural pathways. PET scans and related studies have shown certain parts of the brain, such as the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex and a structure called the hippocampus, to be particularly active in recall. Computer models of brain memory are called neural networks. In a study using genetic manipulation, a mouse with enhanced memory capabilities has been produced.
See M. H. Ashcroft, Human Memory and Cognition (1989, repr. 1994); N. Cowan, Attention and Memory (1995, repr. 1998); J. McConkey, ed. The Anatomy of Memory (1996); D. L. Schacter, Searching for Memory (1996) and The Seven Sins of Memory (2001); J. A. Groegerd, Memory and Remembering (1997); A. Baddeley, Human Memory (rev. ed. 1998); R. Rupp, Committed to Memory (1998).
Licensed from Columbia University Press
Licensed from Columbia University Press
| Year | Recipient(s) |
|---|---|
| 1969 | Ragnar Frisch Jan Tinbergen |
| 1970 | Paul A. Samuelson |
| 1971 | Simon Kuznets |
| 1972 | Sir John R. Hicks Kenneth J. Arrow |
| 1973 | Wassily Leontief |
| 1974 | Gunnar Myrdal Friedrich A. von Hayek |
| 1975 | Leonid V. Kantorovich Tjalling C. Koopmans |
| 1976 | Milton Friedman |
| 1977 | James E. Meade Bertil Ohlin |
| 1978 | Herbert A. Simon |
| 1979 | Sir Arthur Lewis Theodore W. Schultz |
| 1980 | Lawrence R. Klein |
| 1981 | James Tobin |
| 1982 | George J. Stigler |
| 1983 | Gerard Debreu |
| 1984 | Richard Stone |
| 1985 | Franco Modigliani |
| 1986 | James M. Buchanan |
| 1987 | Robert M. Solow |
| 1988 | Maurice Allais |
| 1989 | Trygve Haavelmo |
| 1990 | Harry M. Markowitz William F. Sharpe Merton H. Miller |
| 1991 | Ronald H. Coase |
| 1992 | Gary S. Becker |
| 1993 | Robert W. Fogel Douglass C. North |
| 1994 | John F. Nash John C. Hasranyi Reinhard Selten |
| 1995 | Robert E. Lucas, Jr. |
| 1996 | William S. Vickrey James A. Mirrlees |
| 1997 | Robert C. Merton Myron S. Scholes |
| 1998 | Amartya Sen |
| 1999 | Robert A. Mundell |
| 2000 | James J. Heckman Daniel L. McFadden |
| 2001 | George A. Akerlof A. Michael Spence Joseph E. Stiglitz |
| 2002 | Daniel Kahneman Vernon L. Smith |
| 2003 | Robert F. Engle Clive W. J. Granger |
| 2004 | Finn E. Kydland Edward C. Prescott |
| 2005 | Robert J. Aumann Thomas C. Schelling |
| 2006 | Edmund S. Phelps |
Licensed from Columbia University Press
Temporary computer storage used for quick retrieval of data in order to increase processing speed. The cached data can be stored in a reserved area of RAM, a special cache chip (separate from the CPU) that provides faster access than RAM, or on the disk drive. By keeping frequently accessed data in a rapidly accessible place, the computer can respond quickly to requests for those data without having to perform time-consuming searches of RAM or hard drives. Since a “stale” cache will contain data that have been superseded by later information, the cached data must be refreshed periodically.
Learn more about cache with a free trial on Britannica.com.
In digital computers, a physical device used to store such information as data or programs on a temporary or permanent basis. Most digital computer systems have two types of memory, the main memory and one or more auxiliary storage units. In most cases, the main memory is a high-speed RAM. Auxiliary storage units include hard disks, floppy disks, and magnetic tape drives. Besides main and auxiliary memories, other forms of memory include ROM and optical storage media such as videodiscs and compact discs (see CD-ROM).
Learn more about memory with a free trial on Britannica.com.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Copyright © 2009, Dictionary.com, LLC. All rights reserved.
