GULP encyclopedia topics

In humans

Coordination and control

The mechanism for swallowing is co-ordinated by the swallowing centre in the medulla oblongata and pons. The reflex is initiated by touch receptors in the pharynx as a bolus of food is pushed to the back of the mouth by the tongue.

Swallowing is a complex mechanism using both skeletal muscle (tongue) and smooth muscles of the pharynx and esophagus. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) coordinates this process in the pharyngeal and esophgeal phases.

Phases

Normal swallowing consists of four phases: oral preparatory, oral transport, pharyngeal, and esophageal (not all sources consider oral preparatory a distinct phase).

Oral preparatory phase

In this phase, the food is processed by mastication, combined with the movement of the tongue form a bolus to an appropriate size to pass through the pharynx and esophagus.

Oral transport (or "buccal") phase

When the bolus is ready to enter the oral stage, it is first moved to the back of the tongue. Next, the anterior tongue lifts to the hard palate and retracts in a posterior direction to force the bolus to the oropharynx. Then, the posterior tongue is lifted by the styloglossus and palatoglossus muscles, which also elevates the uvula and seals the nasopharynx to prevent nasal aspiration. This phase is voluntary and involves important cranial nerves: V (trigeminal), VII (facial), and XII (hypoglossal).

Pharyngeal phase

In this phase, the bolus is advanced from the pharynx to the esophagus through peristalsis. The soft palate is elevated to the posterior nasopharyngeal wall, through the action of the levator veli palatini. The palatopharyngeal folds on each side of the pharynx are brought close together through the superior constrictor muscles, so that only a small bolus can pass. Then the larynx and hyoid are elevated and pulled forward to the epiglottis to relax the cricopharyngeus muscle. This passively shuts off its entrance and the vocal cords are pulled close together, narrowing the passageway between them. This phase is passively controlled reflexively and involves cranial nerves V, X (vagus), XI (accessory), and XII (hypoglossal) The respiratory centre of the medulla is directly inhibited by the swallowing centre for the very brief time that it takes to swallow. This is known as deglutition apnoea.

Esophageal phase

The upper oesophageal sphincter relaxes to let food past, after which various striated constrictor muscles of the pharynx as well as peristalsis and relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter sequentially push the bolus of food through the esophagus into the stomach.

In terminally ill patients, a failure of the reflex to swallow leads to a buildup of mucous or saliva in the throat and airways, producing a noise known as a death rattle, or agonal respiration.

Clinical significance

Swallowing becomes a great concern for the elderly since strokes and Alzheimer's disease can interfere with the ANS. Speech therapy is commonly used to correct this condition since the speech process uses the same neuromuscular structures as swallowing.

Abnormalities of the pharynx and/or oral cavity may lead to oropharyngeal dysphagia. Abnormalities of the esophagus may lead to esophageal dysphagia.

In animals

In many birds, the oesophagus is largely merely a gravity chute, and in such events as a seagull swallowing a fish or a stork swallowing a frog, swallowing consists largely of the bird lifting its head with its beak pointing up and guiding the prey with tongue and jaws so that the prey slides inside and down.

In fish, the tongue is largely bony and much less mobile, and getting the food to the back of the pharynx is helped by pumping water in its mouth and out of its gills.

In snakes, the work of swallowing is done by raking with the lower jaw until the prey is far enough back to be helped down by body undulations.

External links

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Last updated on Monday September 01, 2008 at 19:36:41 PDT (GMT -0700)
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Grenada United Labor Party

The Grenada United Labor Party is a political party in Grenada, founded by former prime minister Sir Eric Gairy.

The GULP won two seats out of 15 in the House of Representatives in the June 1995 general election. It won no seats in the January 1999 general election, but Michael Baptiste of the ruling New National Party defected to the GULP in June 2000, giving the party one seat in the House of Representatives.

Gloria Payne Banfield was elected as GULP leader in February 2003, becoming Grenada's first female party leader. In the general election held on November 27 2003, the party won 3.2% of the popular vote and no seats. For the July 2008 election, it formed a coalition with the People's Labour Movement; the United Labour Platform fielded 11 candidates for the 15 seats, netting .84% of the vote and no victories.