Thurow, Lester Carl, 1938-, American economist, b. Livingston, Mont.; grad. Williams College, 1960; M.A. Oxford, 1962; Ph.D. Harvard, 1964. Professor of management and economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Thurow is an influential writer and lecturer who is often consulted about national economic policies. He served (1964-65) on President Lyndon
Johnson's Council of Economic Advisors, then taught at Harvard (1966-68). He moved to MIT in 1968, becoming dean (1987-93) of the MIT Sloan School of Management. He was also an economics columnist for the
New York Times (1980-81) and a contributing editor (1981-83) for
Newsweek. Among his many books are
The Zero-Sum Society (1980),
The Zero-Sum Solution: Building a World-Class American Economy (1985),
Head to Head: The Coming Economic Battle among Japan, Europe, and America (1992),
The Future of Capitalism (1996),
Economics Explained (with R. L. Heilbroner, rev. ed. 1998), and
Building Wealth (1999).
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Stokes, Carl Burton, 1927-96, American political leader, b. Cleveland. A 1956 graduate of the Cleveland Marshall School of Law, Stokes began his political career as a Democratic member of the Ohio general assembly (1962-67). In 1965 he narrowly lost a race for mayor of Cleveland. In 1967 he ran again and became the first African American to be elected mayor of a major American city. He was reelected in 1969, but after his second term he left politics to become a news broadcaster in New York City. He returned to Cleveland in 1980 and was general counsel to the United Automobile Workers. In 1983 Stokes was elected municipal court judge, serving two terms as head of the court. He then served (1994-95) as ambassador to the Seychelles.
See his memoirs, Promises of Power (1983).
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Sternheim, Carl, 1878-1943, German dramatist. In his successful comedy Die Hose (1911, tr. A Pair of Drawers, 1927) and in his later works he satirized as corrupt the manners, morals, and beliefs of bourgeois society. Other works include the plays Bürger Schippel (1913) and Die Marquise von Arcis (1919, tr. The Mask of Virtue, 1935); the novel Fairfax (1921, tr. 1923), which satirized American life; and stories and critical essays. Sternheim's work had an influence on German expressionism. In the Nazi era he lived in Switzerland.
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Spitzweg, Carl, 1808-85, German genre painter and draftsman. Self-taught, he depicted the daily life of his native Munich in small, charming pictures in which realism, fancy, and humor are happily combined. Characteristic are The Poor Poet, Two Hermits, and Scholar in the Attic. He contributed many delightful drawings to the humorous periodical Fliegende Blätter.
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Spitteler, Carl Friedrich Georg, 1845-1924, Swiss poet, whose pseudonym was Carl Felix Tandem. He was awarded the 1919 Nobel Prize in Literature. His chief works include the epics Prometheus und Epimetheus (1881, tr. 1931) and Olympischer Frühling [Olympian spring] (2 vol., 1900-1906; revised version, 1910). The latter, set among the Greek gods, is an original and complex allegory of the necessity for ethics in the modern world. His other works include novels, essays, and poems.
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Slatin, Rudolf Carl, Freiherr von, known as
Slatin Pasha, 1857-1932, Austrian adventurer in British and Egyptian service. Called to Egypt by C. G. Gordon, Slatin became governor of Dara (1879) and governor-general of Darfur (1881). In the Mahdist War he was forced to surrender (1883) to the Arab leader, the Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad; he was a prisoner until 1895, when he escaped to Cairo. After serving under Kitchener in the reconquest of Sudan, he became inspector general of Sudan (1900-1914). During World War I he headed the prisoners-of-war section of the Austrian Red Cross. He wrote
Fire and Sword in the Sudan (tr. 1897) and was ennobled by the Austrian emperor in 1906.
See biographies by R. Hill (1965) and G. Brook-Shepherd (1973).
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Schurz, Carl, 1829-1906, American political leader, b. Germany. He studied at the Univ. of Bonn and participated in the revolutionary uprisings of 1848-49 in Germany. Compelled to flee to Zürich after the collapse of the movement, he finally emigrated (1852) to the United States, where he settled (1856) in Watertown, Wis. and became a strong supporter of Abraham Lincoln, who appointed him (1861) U.S. minister to Spain. Schurz resigned this position to serve in the Civil War. Promoted to major general in 1863, he fought in the battles of Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, and Chattanooga and served with Gen. William T. Sherman's army in North Carolina in 1865. Between 1865 and 1868, Schurz was Washington correspondent of the New York
Tribune, editor of the Detroit
Post, and joint editor and owner of the St. Louis
Westliche Post. He was U.S. Senator (1869-75) from his adopted state of Missouri. Antagonized by the radical Republican Reconstruction program and opposed to the administration of President Grant, Schurz aided in forming (1872) the
Liberal Republican party. In 1876, Schurz supported Rutherford B. Hayes, whose hard money views he approved, for the presidency. He served (1877-81) in Hayes's cabinet as Secretary of the Interior. He was an editor (1881-83) of the New York
Evening Post and wrote editorials (1892-98) for
Harper's Weekly. In 1884, convinced of James G. Blaine's unfitness for office, Schurz led the
mugwumps in their opposition to Blaine's nomination and candidacy. Schurz supported the Democrat Grover Cleveland in that year and again in 1888 and 1892. He turned to William McKinley in 1896 because of William Jennings Bryan's currency views, but in 1900 he supported Bryan because of his anti-imperialist views. He wrote
Life of Henry Clay (2 vol., 1887),
Abraham Lincoln: an Essay (1891), and his own reminiscences (3 vol., 1907-8; abridged vol. by Allan Nevins, 1961).
See F. Bancroft, ed., Speeches, Correspondence, and Political Papers of Carl Schurz (6 vol., 1913); J. Schafer, ed., Intimate Letters of Carl Schurz, 1841-1869 (1928); biographies by C. M. Fuess (1932, repr. 1963) and J. P. Terzian (1965).
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Sauer, Carl Ortwin, 1889-1975, American geographer, b. Warrenton, Mo., grad. Univ. of Chicago (Ph.D., 1915). Sauer was a professor for over 50 years at the Univ. of California at Berkeley, where he built a distinguished graduate school. A great influence on a generation of geographers, he sought to unify the areas of physical and human geography through an essentially historical methodology. Sauer advocated a "humane" use of the environment, pointing to ancient and modern rural cultures as examples. Among his 21 books and monographs are Agricultural Origins and Dispersals (1952) and Northern Mists (1968).
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Sandburg, Carl, 1878-1967, American poet and biographer, b. Galesburg, Ill. The son of poor Swedish immigrants, he left school at the age of 13 and became a day laborer. He served in the Spanish-American War and, after returning to Galesburg, attended Lombard College (now Knox College). In 1902 he went to work as a newspaperman in Milwaukee. In 1908 he married Lillian Steichen, sister of the photographer Edward Steichen. From 1910 to 1912 he was secretary to the Socialist mayor of Milwaukee. Sandburg later moved to Chicago, where he continued his journalism career, becoming in 1917 an editorial writer for the Chicago
Daily News. His poetry first began to attract attention in Harriet Monroe's magazine
Poetry. With the appearance of his
Chicago Poems (1916),
Cornhuskers (1918),
Smoke and Steel (1920), and
Slabs of the Sunburnt West (1922), his reputation was established. Among his later volumes of verse are
Good Morning, America (1928),
The People, Yes (1936),
Complete Poems (1950; Pulitzer Prize),
Harvest Poems, 1910-1960 (1960), and
Honey and Salt (1963). Sandburg drew most of his inspiration from American history and was profoundly influenced by Walt Whitman. His verse is vigorous and impressionistic, written without regard for conventional meter and form, in language both simple and noble. Much of his poetry celebrates the beauty of ordinary people and things. Sandburg's most ambitious work was his six-volume biography of Abraham Lincoln (1926-39); this monumental work exalts Lincoln as the symbol and embodiment of the American spirit. The last four volumes won the Pulitzer Prize. At 70, Sandburg produced his first work of fiction, the novel
Remembrance Rock (1948), a panoramic epic of America. His other works include
The American Songbag (1927), a collection of folk ballads and songs; children's books, such as
Rootabaga Stories (1922); and the autobiographical
Always the Young Strangers (1953).
See his letters, ed. by H. Mitgang (1968); biographies by N. Callahan (1970) and H. Golden (1988); studies by R. Crowder (1963), H. B. Durnell (1965), and W. A. Sutton (1979).
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Sagan, Carl Edward, 1934-96, American astronomer and popularizer of science, b. New York City. Early in his career he investigated radio emissions from Venus and concluded that the cause was a surface temperature of c.900°F; (500°C;) and crushing atmospheric pressure. He also studied color variations on Mars' surface, concluding that they were not seasonal changes as most believed but shifts in surface dust caused by windstorms. Both conclusions were substantially confirmed years later by space probes. Sagan is best known, however, for his research on the possibilities of extraterrestrial life (see
exobiology), including experimental demonstration of the production of amino acids from basic chemicals by radiation. A professor of astronomy and space sciences at Cornell Univ. after 1968, he was involved with numerous NASA planetary space probes and was the creator and host of the 1980 public television science series
Cosmos. His publications include
The Dragons of Eden (1977; Pulitzer); a novel,
Contact (1985); with Richard Turco,
A Path Where No Man Thought (1990), on
nuclear winter; with Ann Druyan,
Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors (1992);
Pale Blue Dot (1994); and
The Demon-Haunted World (1995).
See biographies by K. Davidson (1999) and W. Poundstone (1999).
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Ruggles, Carl, 1876-1971, American composer, b. Marion, Mass. Ruggles studied music at Harvard and was a friend of Charles Ives. His works are highly original, characterized by complex textures and jagged outlines. He wrote relatively little and later disavowed the music he had written before 1918. His best-known pieces include Men and Mountains (1924) and Sun-Treader (1932), for orchestra; Angels, for muted brass (1921); and Evocations (1934-43), for piano.
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Rogers, Carl, 1902-87, American psychologist, b. Oak Park, Ill. In 1930, Rogers served as director of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children in Rochester, New York. He lectured at the Univ. of Rochester (1935-40), Ohio State Univ. (1940-44), and the Univ. of Chicago (1945-57), where he helped to found a therapeutic counseling center. After teaching at Univ. of Wisconsin until 1963, he became a resident at the new Center for Studies of the Person in La Jolla. A prominent figure in the humanistic school of psychology, Rogers is best known for his client-centered therapy, which suggested that the client should have as much impact on the direction of the therapy as the psychologist. His works include Client-Centered Therapy (1951) and On Becoming a Person (1961).
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Reinecke, Carl, 1824-1910, German composer, pianist, and conductor. After serving as court pianist (1846-48) in Denmark, he taught at the Cologne Conservatory and the Univ. of Breslau. In 1860 he moved to Leipzig, where he conducted the Gewandhaus concerts until 1895 and taught composition at the conservatory until 1902. He toured extensively as a pianist, gaining particular acclaim for his interpretations of Mozart. His compositions, the best of which are for piano, are in the German romantic tradition.
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Pauling, Linus Carl, 1901-94, American chemist, b. Portland, Oreg. He was one of the few recipients of two Nobel Prizes, winning the chemistry award in 1954 and the peace prize in 1962. His scientific career centered around the California Institute of Technology, where he received his doctorate in 1925 and became professor of chemistry in 1931 after a period of study abroad with Arnold
Sommerfeld, Niels
Bohr, and Erwin
Schrödinger. He was among the first to apply the
quantum theory to calculations of molecular structures; his book
The Nature of the Chemical Bond (1939, 3d ed. 1960) is still the classic in the field. He developed the concept of resonance to explain covalent bonds in certain organic compounds (see
chemical bond). His later work concerned molecular biology; using physical techniques, he determined the three-dimensional structures of many antitoxins, amino acids, and proteins. He was the first recipient of two honors awarded by the American Chemical Society: the Langmuir prize (1931) and the Lewis medal (1951). Outside of his scientific work, Pauling took a vital interest in public affairs, especially the movement for world disarmament. His
No More War (1958) was a plea for international peace. In addition to receiving the Nobel Peace Prize, he was among seven awarded the 1968-69 International Lenin Peace Prize. He also championed the use of large quantities (megadoses) of vitamin C for controlling the common cold and the use of chemotherapy in general for the cure of mental diseases such as schizophrenia.
See T. Hager, Force of Nature: the Life of Linus Pauling (1995); T. Goertzel and B. Goertzel, Linus Pauling: A Life in Science and Politics (1995); B. Marinacci, ed., Linus Pauling in His Own Words (1995).
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Ossietzky, Carl von, 1889-1938, German pacifist. A leader of the peace movement in Germany after World War I, he was editor of the antimilitarist weekly Weltbühne from 1927. Ossietzky was imprisoned (1932) for articles exposing secret rearmament in Germany. After Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933, Ossietzky was sent to a concentration camp. Suffering from tuberculosis, he was removed (1936) to a prison hospital shortly before the announcement that he had been awarded the 1935 Nobel Peace Prize. The German government protested and barred all Germans from future acceptance of a Nobel Prize. Still imprisoned, Ossietzky died two years later. His collected writings were published in an eight-volume German edition in 1995.
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Orff, Carl, 1895-1982, German composer and educator. After studying at the Academy of Music at Munich, he helped to found the Günter School there in 1924. As a composer Orff wished to simplify music, to return to its primitive components. He attempted to adapt old monodic forms to modern tastes, employing dissonant counterpoint and vigorous rhythms. His most famous work is the
Carmina Burana (1937), a scenic oratorio derived from a group of medieval poems in German and Latin (see also
Goliardic songs). This oratorio forms part of a trilogy that includes
Catulli Carmina (1943), a scenic cantata based on the works of Catullus; and
Trionfo di Afrodite (1953). Orff's other works include the operas
Der Mond [the moon] (1939) and
Die Kluge [the wise woman] (1943). From 1960 he was head of the Orff School for Music in Munich. His work in music education has attracted a considerable following in the United States.
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Nielsen, Carl, 1865-1931, Danish composer. Nielsen was a pupil of Niels
Gade at the Royal Conservatory in Copenhagen. Considered Denmark's foremost composer, he is known internationally primarily for his six symphonies. Nielsen also composed one concerto apiece for flute, clarinet, and violin; two operas,
Saul and David and
Maskarade; a woodwind quintet; four string quartets; songs; incidental music; and many other chamber, choral, and piano pieces. His orchestral writing is extremely dense in texture. His music is frequently polyphonic and often strongly melodic. Although he never abandoned tonality, he built works from contrasting key centers, so that they give little sense of a tonic key. Nielsen's books include
Living Music (1925, tr. 1953) and
My Childhood (1927, tr. 1953).
See M. Miller, The Nielsen Companion (1995); biography by K. Eskildsen (1999); studies by R. Simpson (1952 and 1965).
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Milles, Carl, 1875-1955, Swedish-American sculptor, whose name originally was Carl Emil Wilhelm Anderson. Influenced by Rodin, he studied in Paris from 1897 until 1904, when he returned to Stockholm. In 1929 he visited the United States for the first time and in 1931 began to teach sculpture at Cranbrook Academy, Cranbrook, Mich. His work, at first inspired by Rodin, later became more angular and abstract. Millesgården near Stockholm contains many of his works. He is represented in the United States by the Peace Monument at St. Paul, Minn.; the Fountain of the Meeting of the Waters at St. Louis; a fountain in the Metropolitan Museum; and statues in Rockefeller Center, New York City.
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Menger, Carl, 1840-1921, Austrian economist, a founder of the Austrian school of economics. He was professor of economics at the Univ. of Vienna from 1873 until 1903, when he retired to devote himself to research. Following an empirical approach rather than the historical method, he formulated a theory of marginal utility. The basic principle is that consumer goods have value of two orders, as they serve human needs directly or indirectly; thus he explained the economic phenomena of price and distribution in terms of social value. His theories are well known to the English-speaking world through the works of some of his associates, especially Friedrich von Wieser and Eugen von
Böhm-Bawerk. In response to a particularly negative review of Menger's
Problems of Economics and Sociology (1883) by Gustav
Schmoller, Menger published a critique of the historical school of economics. This exchange resulted in long-standing animosity between the two schools of economic thought. His chief work is
Principles of Economics (1871; tr. 1950).
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Mannerheim, Baron Carl Gustav Emil, 1867-1951, Finnish field marshal and president of Finland (1944-46). Of a distinguished Swedish-Finnish family in Russian-controlled Finland, Mannerheim rose to the rank of general in the czarist army. In 1918 he led victorious Finnish antisocialist forces against the Finnish Bolsheviks and their Soviet supporters, and in the following year he headed the new regime in Finland as regent. Defeated in the presidential elections of 1919, he went into retirement and engaged in philanthropic activity. He was appointed head of the Finnish defense council in 1931 and commanded the Finnish forces against the Soviet Union in the
Finnish-Russian War of 1939-40 and again in 1941-44. In Aug., 1944, he succeeded Risto Ryti as president of Finland, and in September he terminated hostilities with the Soviet Union. He resigned the presidency in 1946 because of ill health and was succeeded by Juho Paasikivi. The
Mannerheim Line, a fortified line of defense across the Karelian Isthmus, was planned by him. The Soviet army broke through the line in 1940, and it was subsequently dismantled.
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Ludwig, Carl Friedrich Wilhelm, 1816-95, German physiologist. He became world famous as professor (from 1865) and head of the physiological institute at the Univ. of Leipzig. Ludwig pioneered in the study of physiology as related to the physical sciences and introduced improved laboratory methods and apparatus, notably the kymograph.
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Lewis, Carl (Frederick Carlton Lewis), 1961-, American sprinter and jumper, b. Birmingham, Ala. A star in high school and at the Univ. of Houston, he became possibly the greatest track athlete of all time. After winning three gold medals at the World Championships in Helsinki in 1983, he went on at the 1984 Summer Olympics to match Jesse
Owens's record by winning four gold medals (the 100-m and 200-m sprints, the long jump, and the 4 × 100-meter relay). He also won three medals—two gold and one silver—at the 1988 Olympic games, two gold again in 1992, and another gold in 1996, tying the record for most gold medals overall (nine). He retired in 1997.
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Larsson, Carl, 1853-1919, Swedish painter and illustrator. He was a popular and imaginative illustrator and was equally successful as a watercolorist. In watercolor he painted exquisite interiors that influenced Swedish decorative arts. He is perhaps best known, however, for his historical mural decorations in fresco for the national museum and the opera house in Stockholm.
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Jung, Carl Gustav, 1875-1961, Swiss psychiatrist, founder of analytical psychology. The son of a country pastor, he studied at Basel (1895-1900) and Zürich (M.D., 1902). After a stint at the University Psychiatric Clinic in Zürich, Jung worked (1902) under Eugen
Bleuler at the Burgholzli Clinic. He wrote valuable papers, but more important was his book on the psychology of dementia praecox (1906), which led to a meeting (1907) with Sigmund
Freud. Finding that their theoretical positions had much in common, the two formed a close relationship for a number of years: Jung edited the
Jahrbuch für psychologische und psychopathologische Forschungen and was made (1911) president of the International Psychoanalytic Society. However, a formal break with Freud came with the publication of Jung's revolutionary work
The Psychology of the Unconscious (1912), which disagreed with the Freudian emphasis on sexual trauma as the basis for all
neurosis and with the literal interpretation of the
Oedipus complex.
Prior to World War II, Jung became president of the Nazi-dominated International General Medical Society for Psychotherapy. As the Nazis forced their Aryan ideology on the association, Jung became increasingly uncomfortable and resigned. In addition, in 1943 he aided the Office of Strategic Services by analyzing Nazi leaders for the United States. Questions have arisen, however, regarding his alleged racial theories of the unconscious. While Jung's work is of little importance in contemporary psychoanalytic practice, it remains widely influential in such fields as religious studies and literary criticism.
Jungian psychology is based on psychic totality and psychic energism. He postulated two dimensions in the unconscious—the personal (repressed or forgotten content of an individual's mental and material life) and the archetypes (images, patterns, and symbols that are often seen in dreams and fantasies and appear as themes in mythology and religion) of a collective unconscious (those acts and mental patterns shared by members of a culture or universally by all human beings). In Psychological Types (1921) Jung elucidated the concepts of extroversion and introversion for the study of personality types. He also developed the theory of synchronicity, the coincidence of causally unrelated events having identical or similar meaning. Additionally, he was the first person to introduce into the language such terms and concepts as "anima" and "New Age." For Jung the most important and lifelong task imposed upon any person is fulfillment through the process of individuation, the achievement of harmony of conscious and unconscious, which makes a person one and whole. Jung's many works are compiled in H. Read, M. Fordham, and G. Adler, ed., Collected Works of C. G. Jung (20 vol., 1953-79).
See his autobiographical Memories, Dreams, Reflections (1963, repr. 1989); his letters, ed. by G. Adler (2 vol., 1973); his correspondence with Sigmund Freud, ed. by R. Manheim and R. F. Hull (1974); biographies by F. McLynn (1997), R. Hayman (2001), and D. Bair (2003); studies by J. Jacobi (rev. ed. 1973), M. A. Mattoon (1985), A. Samuels (1986), and M. Pauson (1989); M. Stein, ed., Jungian Analysis (1982); R. Noll, The Jung Cult (1994) and The Aryan Christ (1997).
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Jacobi, Carl Gustav Jacob, 1804-51, German mathematician. He was an outstanding teacher and was professor of mathematics at Königsberg (1827-42) and lectured at Berlin from 1844. One of the greatest algorists of all time, he is noted for his work on elliptic functions, described in his Fundamenta Nova Theoriae Functionum Ellipticarum (1829), and on determinants, the theory of numbers, differential equations, and dynamics. His brother, Moritz Hermann Jacobi, 1801-74, was a physicist and engineer who was the more famous of the two during their lifetimes. He was known for his supposed discovery (1837) of galvanoplastics, but his reputation faded when his ideas were later shown to be mistaken.
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Hubbell, Carl Owen, 1903-88, American baseball player, b. Carthage, Mo. A left-handed pitcher, Hubbell played his entire major league career (1928-43) with the New York Giants. Hubbell, famous for his adept use of his "screwball" pitch, hurled brilliantly in the 1934 All-Star game, pitched 24 consecutive victories in the 1936-37 seasons, and won 253 games before he retired. Known as "the Meal Ticket," he was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1947.
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Graun, Carl Heinrich, 1704-59, German composer, best known for his oratorio Der Tod Jesu (1755), for many years performed annually in Germany. As musical director to Frederick the Great, who wrote the libretto of Graun's Montezuma (1755), he was also director of the opera at Berlin, where his own Italianate operas and those of Johann Hasse dominated the stage. His brother, Johann Gottlieb Graun, 1703-71, also in the service of the court as a violinist, was the composer of 100 symphonies and many other works.
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Goldmark, Peter Carl, 1906-77, Hungarian-American engineer, b. Budapest. He studied at the Univ. of Vienna (B.S., 1929, Ph.D., 1931); worked for a radio company in England (1931-33). After emigrating to the United States (1933), he worked as a construction engineer until joining the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) in 1936. There he developed the first commercial color television system, which used a rotating three-color disk. Although initially approved by the Federal Communications Commission, it was later superseded by an all-electronic color system that was compatible with black-and-white sets. Goldmark developed the 33
1/3 LP phonograph that greatly increased the playing time of records. He also developed a scanning system used by the Lunar Orbiter spacecraft in 1966 to transmit photographs to the earth from the moon.
See his autobiography (1973).
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Goerdeler, Carl Friedrich, 1884-1945, German civil servant, leader of resistance to Hitler. Lord mayor of Leipzig (1930-37) and price commissioner (1931-32, 1934-35), he resigned after continuously protesting measures taken by the Nazi regime. A conservative and a dedicated nationalist, he opposed Hitler's tactics and feared the consequences of war. After his resignation he organized the opposition to Hitler and conspired with Ludwig
Beck in the unsuccessful attempt to assassinate Hitler on July 20, 1944. Goerdeler went into hiding but was arrested in Aug., 1944, and executed in Feb., 1945.
See study by G. Ritter (tr. 1958, repr. 1970).
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Gauss, Carl Friedrich, born Johann Friederich Carl Gauss, 1777-1855, German mathematician, physicist, and astronomer. Gauss was educated at the Caroline College, Brunswick, and the Univ. of Göttingen, his education and early research being financed by the Duke of Brunswick. Following the death of the duke in 1806, Gauss became director (1807) of the astronomical observatory at Göttingen, a post he held until his death. Considered the greatest mathematician of his time and as the equal of Archimedes and Newton, Gauss showed his genius early and made many of his important discoveries before he was twenty. His greatest work was done in the area of higher arithmetic and
number theory; his
Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (completed in 1798 but not published until 1801) is one of the masterpieces of mathematical literature.
Gauss was extremely careful and rigorous in all his work, insisting on a complete proof of any result before he would publish it. As a consequence, he made many discoveries that were not credited to him and had to be remade by others later; for example, he anticipated Bolyai and Lobachevsky in non-Euclidean geometry, Jacobi in the double periodicity of elliptic functions, Cauchy in the theory of functions of a complex variable, and Hamilton in quaternions. However, his published works were enough to establish his reputation as one of the greatest mathematicians of all time. Gauss early discovered the law of quadratic reciprocity and, independently of Legendre, the method of least squares. He showed that a regular polygon of n sides can be constructed using only compass and straight edge only if n is of the form 2p(2q+1)(2r+1) … , where 2q + 1, 2r + 1, … are prime numbers.
In 1801, following the discovery of the asteroid Ceres by Piazzi, Gauss calculated its orbit on the basis of very few accurate observations, and it was rediscovered the following year in the precise location he had predicted for it. He tested his method again successfully on the orbits of other asteroids discovered over the next few years and finally presented in his Theoria motus corporum celestium (1809) a complete treatment of the calculation of the orbits of planets and comets from observational data. From 1821, Gauss was engaged by the governments of Hanover and Denmark in connection with geodetic survey work. This led to his extensive investigations in the theory of space curves and surfaces and his important contributions to differential geometry as well as to such practical results as his invention of the heliotrope, a device used to measure distances by means of reflected sunlight.
Gauss was also interested in electric and magnetic phenomena and after about 1830 was involved in research in collaboration with Wilhelm Weber. In 1833 he invented the electric telegraph. He also made studies of terrestrial magnetism and electromagnetic theory. During the last years of his life Gauss was concerned with topics now falling under the general heading of topology, which had not yet been developed at that time, and he correctly predicted that this subject would become of great importance in mathematics.
See biography by T. Hall (tr. 1970).
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Fish, Carl Russell, 1876-1932, American historian, b. Central Falls, R.I. From 1900 to his death he taught history at the Univ. of Wisconsin. Fish considered the Univ. of Wisconsin the "most democratic institution in America," and he was extremely popular there among both students and colleagues. He wrote The Civil Service and the Patronage (1904, repr. 1963); The Development of American Nationality (1913, rev. ed. 1940), a useful and popular textbook; American Diplomacy (1915, 5th ed. 1929); The Path of Empire ("Chronicles of America" series, 1919); The Rise of the Common Man, 1830-1850 ("History of American Life" Vol. VI, 1927, repr. 1971); and The American Civil War: An Interpretation (ed. by William E. Smith, 1937).
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Fabergé, Peter Carl, 1846-1920, Russian goldsmith and jeweler, b. St. Petersburg. Sometimes described as a latter-day
Cellini, he was descended from Huguenots and inherited (1870) his father Gustave's jewelry firm in his native city. The business flourished under the younger Fabergé's direction, expanding to include the creation of precious objects in gold, silver, vermeil, enamelwork, and gems. By 1906 there were branches in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa, Kiev, and London, and the firm employed well over 500. Favorites of the aristocracy, Fabergé and his studio became particularly known for their opulent, intricate, and ingenious Easter eggs, which were often used as gifts by czars Alexander III and Nicholas II. The Russian Revolution meant the downfall of such lavish artistry, however gorgeously wrought; the Fabergé business was nationalized in 1917 and closed the following year. Fabergé himself fled to Lausanne, Switzerland, where he soon died.
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Eigenmann, Carl H., 1863-1927, American ichthyologist, b. Germany, grad. Indiana Univ., 1886. From 1891 he taught at Indiana Univ., founding and directing the biological station at Winona Lake. With his wife, Rosa Smith Eigenmann (1859-1947), he studied and published much on the fishes of South America. His greatest work was "The American Characinidae" (1917-29 in five parts in the Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology). He also studied degenerate evolution (in which characteristics that seem to be biologically regressive are inherited when they better enable the organism to survive its environment) in cave-dwelling vertebrates and wrote Cave Vertebrates of North America (1909).
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Dreyer, Carl Theodor, 1889-1968, Danish motion picture director. He began making films in Denmark in 1919. His
Passion of Joan of Arc (1928), widely regarded as a classic of silent filmmaking, made extensive use of close-ups and stark lighting to increase the film's dramatic effect. He experimented with innovative techniques in
Vampyr (1931), his first movie with sound, which explored the power of evil and the horror of human suffering. His later works, usually adaptations of plays that employed a slow pace to build great cumulative power, include
Day of Wrath (1943),
Ordet (1955), and
Gertrud (1964).
See studies by T. Milne (1971) and D. Bordwell (1973).
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Djerassi, Carl, 1929-, American organic chemist and educator, b. Vienna, Austria. He received his Ph.D. from the Univ. of Wisconsin (1945) and, since 1959, has taught at Stanford Univ. He was also president of the Syntex Research Division (1968-72) as well as president (1968-83) and then chairman of the board (1983-88) of the Zoecon Corporation. His synthetic work focused on steroids, antihistamines, and inflammatories and his theoretical work on optical rotatory dispersion and circular dichroism. He produced the first commercial oral contraceptive. His books include The Politics of Contraception: Birth Control in the Year 2001 (1980) and Cantor's Dilemma (1989).
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Cori, Carl Ferdinand, 1896-1984, and
Gerty Theresa Cori, 1896-1957, American biochemists, b. Prague. Soon after receiving their medical degrees and marrying, they emigrated to the United States (1922), where they pursued their joint researches into the biochemical pathway by which
glycogen, the storage form of sugar in liver and muscle, is broken down into
glucose. As part of this work, they also elucidated the molecular defects underlying a number of genetically determined glycogen storage diseases. For these discoveries the Coris received the 1947 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine.
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Carl XVI Gustaf: see
Charles XVI Gustavus.
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Carl Sandburg Home National Historic Site: see
National Parks and Monuments (table).
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Buck, Carl Darling, 1866-1955, American philologist, b. Orlando, Maine. Buck taught at the Univ. of Chicago from 1892 to 1933. His Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian (1904) is still authoritative.
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Bellman, Carl Michael, 1740-95, Swedish poet; protégé of Gustavus III. His early poetry was chiefly religious. His dithyrambic odes in
Fredmans Epistlar (1790) and
Fredmans Sånger (1791) include bacchanals, pastorals, and comic pieces. A fine performer of his own verse, Bellman sometimes wrote music for it, but more often he borrowed French melodies and music from contemporary plays.
See J. Massengale, The Musical-Poetic Method of C. M. Bellman (1979).
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Becker, Carl Lotus, 1873-1945, American historian, b. Blackhawk co., Iowa. He taught history at Dartmouth College (1901-2), at the Univ. of Kansas (1902-16), and at Cornell Univ. (1917-41). After retirement he was professor emeritus and university historian at Cornell. Among his early works were monographs such as his
History of Political Parties in the Province of New York, 1760-1776 (1909), but his real forte was the analysis of thought and philosophy in action, exemplified by his studies on the American Revolutionary period (e.g.,
The Declaration of Independence, 1922, repr. 1942) and in the broader study,
The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers (1932). His deep concern with the use of history for the improvement of international relations and the quality of life was shown in his
How New Will the Better World Be? (1944). His works are remarkable as much for the quiet originality of his thought as for the purity and lucidity of his impeccable literary style.
See collection of his letters (ed. by M. Kammen, 1974); biographies by C. W. Smith (1956, repr. 1973) and B. T. Wilkins (1961, repr. 1967); C. Strout, The Pragmatic Revolt in American History (1958, repr. 1966).
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Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel, 1714-88, German composer; second son of J. S. Bach, his only teacher. While harpsichordist at the court of Frederick the Great, where his chief duty for 28 years (1738-67) was to accompany the monarch's performances on the flute, he wrote an important work on technique,
Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments (1753, tr. 1949). After this artistically unsatisfying service with Frederick, Bach succeeded his godfather, Georg Philipp Telemann, as musical director at Hamburg. His 2 volumes of sonatas (1742-43) and his 20 symphonies established the typical classical forms of such works and powerfully influenced both Haydn and Beethoven. He also composed other keyboard music and sacred choral music. His craftsmanship was outstanding in the period between the baroque and classical periods.
See biography by E. Eugene Helm (1989).
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Andre, Carl, 1935-, American sculptor, b. Quincy, Mass. A former student of Patrick Morgan and Frank Stella, Andre produces sculptures of elemental, classic form. His works reflect the quarries, shipyards, and islands of his birthplace and his years spent as a freight-train brakeman. One of the founders of the minimalist sculpture movement, he is famous for his floor pieces, including
Lever (1966), in which fire bricks were arranged to extend laterally 400 feet (122 m) from a gallery wall. In 1988, he was tried and acquitted of pushing his wife,
land art sculptor Ana Mendiata, to her death from the window of their 34th-floor apartment.
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Anderson, Carl David, 1905-91, American physicist, b. New York City, grad. California Institute of Technology (B.S., 1927; Ph.D., 1930). Associated with the institute's physics department from 1930, he became professor in 1939. For his discovery (1932) of the positron, he shared with V. F. Hess the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics. The
muon particle was discovered in cosmic rays in 1935 by Anderson and his associate S. H. Neddermeyer and almost simultaneously by J. C. Street and E. C. Stevenson at Harvard.
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Almquist, Carl Jonas Love, 1793-1866, Swedish writer. He was one of the few Swedish authors developing the novel in the period 1830-50. At first a somewhat bizarre romanticist, inclined toward anarchy, he later became more concerned with realism and democracy. This transition is seen in
The Book of the Thorn Rose (14 vol., 1832-51), which contains most of his novels, stories, plays, and poems. The collection includes
The Queen's Diamond Ornament (1834), a masterpiece of Scandinavian literature; its heroine, the androgynous Tintomara, embodies Almquist's skeptical attitude toward conventional sex roles.
Sara Videbeck (1839, tr. 1919), an important feminist novel, is thought to have led to his exile. In his varied career he was civil servant, teacher, clergyman, and socialist. Accused of forgery and suspected of murder, he fled to the United States and after 1865 lived in Bremen as Professor Westermann.
See B. Romberg, Carl Jonas Love Almquist (1977).
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Albert, Carl Bert, 1908-2000, U.S. Congressman (1947-76), b. McAlester, Okla. Admitted to the bar in 1935, Albert enlisted (1941) in the army as a private, served (1942-46) in the Pacific during World War II, and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel. Elected (1946) as a Democrat to the House of Representatives from a rural Oklahoma district, he rose to the positions of majority whip (1955-62), majority leader (1962-71), and Speaker of the House (1971-76). A loyal member of the farm bloc, Albert was also a reliable supporter of the liberal social and economic policies of the Democratic party.
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Akeley, Carl Ethan, 1864-1926, American naturalist, animal sculptor, and author, b. Orleans co., N.Y. He served (1887-95) at the Museum of Milwaukee; from 1895 to 1909 he was at the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, and from 1909 he was affiliated with the American Museum of Natural History, New York City. His principal contribution was in the field of
taxidermy; his system of mounting specimens by applying the skin to a finely contoured model is still used by museums. His animal sculptures and paintings may be seen in Akeley Hall in the Museum of Natural History and in the Field Museum of Natural History. He invented the cement gun for use in his own work, and the Akeley camera is widely used by naturalists. His influence led to the establishment in 1926 of the Albert (now Virunga) National Park, an animal sanctuary in Congo (Kinshasa). He wrote
In Brightest Africa (1923).
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Schurz
(born March 2, 1829, Liblar, near Cologne, Prussia—died May 14, 1906, New York, N.Y., U.S.) German-U.S. politician and journalist. After participating in the abortive German revolution of 1848, he fled to the U.S. in 1852. He settled in Wisconsin, where he became active in the antislavery movement and the Republican Party. In the American Civil War he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers and saw action in several battles. After the war he became a newspaper editor in St. Louis (1867–69), where he won election to the U.S. Senate (1869–75). As U.S. secretary of the interior (1877–81), he promoted civil-service reform and an improved Indian policy. He later edited the
New York Evening Post and the
Nation (1881–83) and wrote editorials for
Harper's Weekly (1892–98). Pursuing his reform interests, he joined the
Mugwumps (1884) and headed the National Civil Service Reform League (1892–1901).
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Carl Sandburg, 1949.
(born Jan. 6, 1878, Galesburg, Ill., U.S.—died July 22, 1967, Flat Rock, N.C.) U.S. poet, historian, novelist, and folklorist. Sandburg tried many occupations and fought in the Spanish-American War before moving to Chicago in 1913, where he worked in journalism. He won recognition in 1914 with poems, including “Chicago,” perhaps his best-known, published in
Poetry magazine. His Whitmanesque free verse eulogizing American workers appeared in such volumes as
Smoke and Steel (1920) and
The People, Yes (1936).
The American Songbag (1927) and
New American Songbag (1950) collect folk songs he performed. His other works include
Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years (1926),
Abraham Lincoln: The War Years (1939, Pulitzer Prize),
Remembrance Rock (1948), and four children's books, including
Rootabaga Stories (1922).
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(born Nov. 9, 1934, Brooklyn, N.Y., N.Y., U.S.—died Dec. 20, 1996, Seattle, Wash.) U.S. astronomer and science writer. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago. At the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (1962–68), he focused on planetary astronomy and on SETI efforts to find extraterrestrial life. He gained prominence as a popular science writer and commentator noted for his clear writing and enthusiasm; his Dragons of Eden (1977) won a Pulitzer Prize. He coproduced and narrated the television series Cosmos (1980); its companion book became the best-selling English-language science book of all time. In the 1980s he studied the environmental effects of nuclear war and helped popularize the term nuclear winter.
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Linus Pauling, photograph by Yousuf Karsh.
(born Feb. 28, 1901, Portland, Ore., U.S.—died Aug. 19, 1994, Big Sur, Calif.) U.S. chemist. He received his doctorate from the California Institute of Technology and became a professor there in 1931. He was one of the first researchers to apply quantum mechanics to the study of molecular structures; to calculate interatomic distances and the angles between chemical bonds (
see bonding), he effectively used
X-ray diffraction, electron diffraction, magnetic effects, and the heat of
reaction. His book
The Nature of the Chemical Bond, and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals (1939) became one of the century's most influential chemistry texts. He was the first recipient of the American Chemical Society's Langmuir Prize (1931) and later the first recipient of its Lewis medal (1951), and in 1954 he received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry. In 1962 his efforts on behalf of control of
nuclear weapons and against nuclear testing brought him the Nobel Peace Prize, making him the first recipient of two unshared Nobel Prizes. In later years he devoted himself to the study of the prevention and treatment of illness by taking high doses of vitamins and minerals, particularly
vitamin C.
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(born July 10, 1895, Munich, Ger.—died March 29, 1982, Munich) German composer and music educator. He trained at the Munich Academy and held several musical posts thereafter. In the 1920s he grew interested in early Baroque music and the association of music with movement. In 1924 he cofounded a school for which he devised a comprehensive music education program (Orff Schulwerk) involving improvisation on specially designed gamelan-like percussion instruments; the program has since come into wide international use. He typically used repetitive rhythms, bare harmonies, and powerfully direct vocal parts, as in his best-known work, the secular oratorio Carmina Burana (1937), which is based on a manuscript of medieval poems.
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(born June 9, 1865, Sortelung, near Norre Lyndelse, Den.—died Oct. 3, 1931, Copenhagen) Danish composer. He studied violin and trumpet as a child and began composing by imitating classical models. In 1890 he went to Germany to learn of newer developments and met Johannes Brahms, whose music came to influence his own. His individual style—still following classical forms but using intense chromaticism combined with a lyric, melodic strain—emerged after 1900. The last five of his six symphonies (1902–25) are the core of his work, but he also composed many short orchestra pieces, piano and chamber music, concertos for violin, flute, and clarinet, and a wind quintet.
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Carl Lewis approaching his gold-medal-winning long jump at the 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles.
(born July 1, 1961, Birmingham, Ala., U.S.) U.S. track-and-field athlete. He qualified for the 1980 Olympics but did not participate, because of the U.S. boycott of the Moscow games. At the 1984 Olympics he won the 100-m and 200-m races, the long jump, and the 4 × 100-m relay. At the 1988 Olympics he won the long jump (becoming the first athlete ever to win that event consecutively) and the 100-m race and received a silver medal in the 200-m. In 1992 he again won the long jump and anchored the winning U.S. 4 × 100-m relay team, and in 1996 he astounded observers by winning a fourth consecutive long-jump h1.
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Carl Jung
(born July 26, 1875, Kesswil, Switz.—died June 6, 1961, Küsnacht) Swiss psychiatrist. As a youth he read widely in philosophy and theology. After taking his medical degree (1902), he worked in Zürich with
Eugen Bleuler on studies of mental illness. From this research emerged Jung's notion of the
complex, or cluster of emotionally charged (and largely unconscious) associations. Between 1907 and 1912 he was
Sigmund Freud's close collaborator and most likely successor, but he broke with Freud over the latter's insistence on the sexual basis of neuroses. In the succeeding years Jung founded the field of
analytic psychology, a response to Freud's
psychoanalysis. Jung advanced the concepts of the introvert and extravert personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious (the pool of human experience passed from generation to generation). He went on to formulate new psychotherapeutic techniques designed to reacquaint the person with his unique “myth” or place in the collective unconscious, as expressed in dream and imagination. Sometimes dismissed as disguised religion and criticized for its lack of verifiability, Jung's perspective nonetheless remains influential in religion and literature as well as psychiatry. His important works include
The Psychology of the Unconscious (1912; revised as
Symbols of Transformation),
Psychological Types (1921),
Psychology and Religion (1938), and
Memories, Dreams, Reflections (1962).
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(born July 6, 1859, Olshammar, Swed.—died May 20, 1940, Övralid) Swedish poet and novelist. His first book of poems, Pilgrimage and Wander Years (1888), drew on his years living in southern Europe and the Middle East and was an immediate success. With his essay “Renaissance” (1889), he became a leader of the opposition in Sweden to naturalism, calling for a rebirth of the literature of fantasy, beauty, and nationalism. Many of the poems he wrote in this vein are translated in Sweden's Laureate (1919). He also wrote historical fiction, including The Charles Men (1897–98) and The Tree of the Folkungs (1905–07). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1916.
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(born , Dec. 2, 1906, Budapest, Hung.—died Dec. 7, 1977, Westchester county, N.Y., U.S.) Hungarian-U.S. engineer. He earned a doctorate from the University of Vienna before immigrating to the U.S. in 1933. From 1936 to 1972 he worked at the Columbia Broadcasting System Laboratories. In 1940 he demonstrated the first commercial colour-television system; based on a rotating three-colour disk, his system found wide application in closed-circuit television for industry, medical institutions, and schools because his camera was much smaller, lighter, and easier to maintain than those that eventually came to be used in commercial television. In 1948 he introduced the long-playing (LP) phonograph record, which revolutionized the recording industry. In 1950 he developed the scanning system that would allow the U.S. Lunar Orbiter spacecraft (launched in 1966) to relay photographs 238,000 mi (380,000 km) from the Moon to Earth.
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orig.
Johann Friedrich Carl Gauss(born April 30, 1777, Brunswick, Duchy of Brunswick—died Feb. 23, 1855, Göttingen, Hanover) German mathematician, astronomer, and physicist. Born to poor parents, he was a prodigy of astounding depth. By his early teens he had already performed astonishing proofs. He published over 150 works and made such important contributions as the fundamental theorem of algebra (in his doctoral dissertation), the least squares method, Gauss-Jordan elimination (for solving matrix equations), and the bell curve, or Gaussian error curve (see normal distribution). Gauss made important contributions to physics and astronomy and pioneered the application of mathematics to gravitation, electricity, and magnetism. He also developed the fields of potential theory and real analysis. With Archimedes and Newton, he is one of the greatest mathematicians of all time.
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Carl Dreyer
(born Feb. 3, 1889, Copenhagen, Den.—died March 20, 1968, Copenhagen) Danish film director. He entered the film industry as a writer of subh1s and became a scriptwriter and editor. His first film as a director was
The President (1919); after several others, he made his most famous silent film,
The Passion of Joan of Arc (1928). He created a new directorial style based on extensive close-ups and the use of authentic settings. His other films include
Vampire (1932), the celebrated
Day of Wrath (1943),
The Word (1955), and
Gertrud (1964).
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Swedish
Carl Gustaf Folke Hubertus(born April 30, 1946, Stockholm, Swed.) King of Sweden from 1973. Grandson of King Gustav VI Adolf (1882–1973), he became crown prince in 1950, his father having died in 1947. After studying at military schools, he became a naval officer. His accession occurred at a time when the role of the Swedish monarchy was being radically altered; the new constitutional laws of 1973 left the king with a solely symbolic function rather than a formal role in the country's administration.
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C.P.E. Bach, engraving by A. Stöttrup
(born March 8, 1714, Weimar, Saxe-Weimar—died Dec. 14, 1788, Hamburg) German composer. Second son of
Johann Sebastian Bach, he received a superb musical education from his father. In 1740 he became harpsichordist at the court of
Frederick II the Great, where he remained for 28 years, after which he moved to Hamburg to take the city's leading musical position. He was a leader of the
Empfindsamkeit (“sensitivity”) movement, which emphasized rhapsodic freedom and sentiment. A founder of the Classical style, he is one of the first composers in whose works
sonata form becomes clearly evident. He wrote some 200 works for harpsichord, clavichord, and piano (including dozens of sonatas), some 50 keyboard concertos, many symphonies, and several oratorios and Passions. His
Essay on the True Manner of Playing Keyboard Instruments (1753) was a highly important practical music treatise.
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(born Sept. 16, 1935, Quincy, Mass., U.S.) U.S. sculptor. The son of a draftsman for a shipbuilding firm, he attended Phillips Andover Academy and Northeastern University. He moved to New York City in 1957 and soon was producing large-scale horizontal sculptures out of steel plates, slabs of granite, styrofoam planks, bricks, and cement blocks, using a grid system based on simple mathematical principles. His work from this period was often intended to be placed directly on the gallery or museum floor; its monumental austerity was central to the Minimalist movement. Beginning in the 1970s he also experimented with large-scale wood sculpture.
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