al-. For some Arabic names beginning thus, see the second part of the name; e.g., for Anwar al-Sadat, see Sadat, Anwar al-.

Zawahiri or Zawahri, Ayman al-, 1951-, militant Egyptian Islamist. A surgeon by education and training, he became involved with the Muslim Brotherhood and joined the Egyptian Islamic Jihad after it was founded in 1973. Arrested in connection with the assassination of Egyptian President Anwar al-Sadat, he was imprisoned for three years on weapons charges. In the late 1980s he worked as a doctor with the Red Crescent in Pakistan, treating wounded mujahidin from Afghanistan. Based in Sudan from 1992 to 1996, he became head (1993) of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, which conducted an Islamist terror campaign against the Egyptian government in the mid-1990s and for which Zawahiri was sentenced (1999) to death in absentia.

By the late 1990s Zawahiri was in Afghanistan again and had established an alliance with Osama bin Laden and Al Qaeda. He became second-in-command in Al Qaeda, the group's chief ideologist, and a leader in its planning of terror attacks. On the run after the Al Qaeda attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, and the subsequent U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, he has replaced bin Laden as the principal public face and voice of Al Qaeda and is believed to be in hiding in the Pakistan-Afghanistan border region.

Zarqawi, Abu Musab al-, nom de guerre of Ahmad Fadhil Nazzar al-Khalaylah, 1966-2006, Islamic terrorist leader, b. Jordan. Becoming a militant Islamist in his early 20s after several years as a mostly petty criminal, he traveled to Afghanistan in 1989 to join the mujahidin, but saw little fighting and worked as a journalist. Returning to Jordan, he was arrested (1994) for plotting against the king and jailed until 1999. In Afghanistan again by 2000, he met Osama bin Laden but established his own training camp; he fled the country when the United States moved against the Taliban after the Sept. 11, 2001, terror attacks. Zarqawi was in Iraq, possibly working with Iranian-supported Islamists, when the United States invaded, and by mid-2003 Al-Tawhid wa al-Jihad, which he headed, was mounting terror attacks, including videotaped beheadings and suicide bombings, against U.S. forces and Iraqi Shiites. Responsible for deadly terror attacks in both Iraq and Jordan, Zarqawi publicly aligned himself with Al Qaeda in 2004 and renamed his group Al Qaeda in Iraq. Zarqawi was killed in a U.S. air strike north of Baghdad in 2006.

Yaqut al-Hamawi, 1179-1229, Arab geographer. Born in Byzantium, he was bought as a slave by a merchant, al-Hamawi. He was freed on the death of his master and traveled extensively in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Persia. His Mujam al-Buldan, a geographical dictionary that includes much biographical, historical, and cultural data, is a primary source in Arabic scholarship.

Umm al-Qaiwain, sheikhdom (1995 pop. 35,157), c.300 sq mi (780 sq km), part of the federation of seven United Arab Emirates, SE Arabia, on the Persian Gulf. It is the least populous and least developed emirate. Fishing and boatbuilding remain important; dates are grown in a limited area. Oil has not been found there. The sheikhdom, formerly a British protectorate, became part of the United Arab Emirates in 1971.

Shafi'i, al- (Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi'i), 767-820, Islamic jurist. Raised and educated in Mecca and Medina, he taught in Egypt and Baghdad. His teachings laid the groundwork for the Shafi'i school of Sunni Islam, one of four such schools. The Shafi'i school gives equal weight to the traditions (hadith) and the Koran, emphasizing the consensus (ijma) of the Islamic community as the most important secondary source of law. Al-Shafi'i wrote al-Risala, which is considered the foundation of Islamic jurisprudence.

Sadr, Moktada or Moqtada al-, 1973?-, Iraqi Shiite cleric. The son of Grand Ayatollah Mohammed Sadeq al-Sadr, who was assassinated in 1999 (presumably by Saddam Hussein's secret police), he emerged after the American invasion of Iraq as a savvy, militantly Islamist and anti-American leader, with significant support among poorer and younger Iraqi Shiites, particularly in the Sadr City section of Baghdad, a Shiite enclave named for his father. Accused of involvement in the assassination (2003) of Ayatollah Abdul Majid al-Khoei, a moderate who had U.S. support, Sadr led his militia, the Mahdi Army, in two abortive uprisings against the U.S. occupation in 2004. Subsequently, he has supported involvement in the political process, despite denouncing the constitution, and was a significant force in the United Iraqi Alliance, a coalition of Shiite religious parties. In late 2007, he ordered his militia, which has at times fought with U.S. forces and has been blamed for attacks on the police, on Sunnis, and on other Shiites, to observe a cease-fire.

Sadat, Anwar al-, 1918-81, Egyptian political leader and president (1970-81). He entered (1936) Abbasia Military Academy, where he became friendly with Gamal Abdal Nasser and other fellow cadets committed to Egyptian nationalism. A German agent during World War II, he was imprisoned (1942) by the British but escaped after two years in jail. He was again jailed (1946-49) for participating in terrorist acts against pro-British Egyptian officials. Sadat took part in the bloodless coup (1952) that deposed King Farouk. Between 1952 and 1968, he held a variety of government positions, including director of army public relations; secretary-general of the National Union, Egypt's only political party; and president of the national assembly. In 1969 he was chosen to be Nasser's vice president, and after Nasser's death (1970), he succeeded to the presidency. Less charismatic than his predecessor, Sadat was nevertheless able to establish himself as Egypt's strongman and a leader of the Arab world. He assumed the premiership in 1973 and in October of that same year led Egypt into war with Israel. He became an Arab hero when Egyptian troops recaptured a small part of the Sinai Peninsula, taken by the Israelis in 1967. A pragmatist, Sadat indicated his willingness to consider a negotiated settlement with Israel and shared the 1978 Nobel Peace Prize with Menachim Begin as a result of the Camp David accords. He was assassinated by Muslim extremists, who were opposed to his peace initiative with Israel.

Saadia ben Joseph al-Fayumi, 882-942, Jewish scholar, b. Egypt. He was known as Saadia Gaon. He was the head of the great Jewish Academy at Sura, Babylonia, which under his leadership became the highest seat of Jewish learning, and a vigorous opponent of the Karaites. Saadia's Book of Language laid the foundation of Hebrew grammar; he also wrote a Hebrew dictionary, the Agron, and made an Arabic translation of the Old Testament that became the standard version for all Arabic-speaking Jews and exerted an important influence upon Muslims as well. He also compiled the first comprehensive siddur (daily prayerbook). His great philosophical work is The Book of Beliefs and Opinions (tr. Samuel Rosenblatt, 1948). Writing in a period of spiritual doubt and confusion, Saadia attempts in this work to defend Jewish religious faith on the basis of rational argument, using the methods of Islamic speculative theology known as kalam. The first defense of Judaism in rational terms, Saadia's work laid the basis for all subsequent Jewish philosophy.

Ras al-Khaimah, sheikhdom (1995 pop. 144,430), c.650 sq mi (1,680 sq km), part of the federation of seven United Arab Emirates, SE Arabia, on the Persian Gulf. Previously affiliated with Sharjah, Ras al-Khaimah became a separate sheikhdom under British protection in 1921. Oil production began in 1969. After some hesitation, the sheikhdom joined the United Arab Emirates in 1972.

Qaddafi, Muammar al-, 1942-, Libyan political leader. He graduated from the Univ. of Libya in 1963 and became an army officer in 1965. In 1969 he formed, along with a group of fellow officers, a secret revolutionary committee and led (1969) a successful coup against the monarchy of Idris I. Qaddafi established himself as Libya's commander in chief and chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council. Blending Arab nationalism, revolutionary socialism, and Islamic orthodoxy, Qaddafi proceeded to run Libya's government as a stridently anti-Western dictatorship. British and American military bases were closed in 1970; in the same year the property of Libya's Italian and Jewish communities was confiscated. The ancient Qur'anic law of cutting off the hands of thieves was reinstituted, gambling and alcoholic beverages were outlawed, and all foreign petroleum assets were nationalized (1973). A fervent Arab nationalist, he sought to unify Libya with other Arab countries, including Egypt and Tunisia, while bitterly opposing Israel. Since Qaddafi took power the Libyan government has been known for its support of many international terrorist and guerrilla organizations, including the Irish Republican Army, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), and other extremist Arab and Islamic groups. In 1986 the United States sought to quell Libya's alleged terrorist activities by bombing several sites in Libya. Qaddafi survived, but several of his children were hurt or killed. In 1999, following the turning over of the suspects in the Lockerbie bombing, Qaddafi sought improved relations with Western European nations and issued a denunciation of terrorism. He also was a strong force behind the Organization of African Unity's decision to transform itself into the African Union. His Green Book (2 vol., 1976-80) is a treatise on Islamic socialism. His name is also spelled Moammar El-Gadhafi.

Nizam al-Mulk, c.1018-92, vizier (1063-92) under two Seljuk (see Turks) sultans. Of Persian descent, he was early educated in administration, serving the Ghaznavids sultans. By 1059 he was chief administrator of Khorasan; in 1063 the Seljuks made him their vizier. Nizam al-Mulk remained in that position throughout the reigns of Alp Arslan and Malikshah. His power peaked under the latter, when he wrote the extensive treatise entitled Siyasat-nameh, or "Book of Government." A devout Sunni Muslim, Nizam al-Mulk also founded a number of theological schools. He was assassinated in 1092.

Nimeiry, Muhammad Gaafur al-, 1930-, Sudanese army officer and politician. Early active in the Sudanese nationalist movement, he was temporarily expelled from high school (1948) after leading a student strike against British rule. He attended military college and served in the army, where he rose to the rank of colonel. In 1969 he led a group of leftist army officers in a coup against the civilian government of Muhammad Ahmad Mahgoub. Nimeiry established himself as president and later (1972) as prime minister. In 1972, Nimeiry signed a truce with secessionist forces in S Sudan, thus ending some 17 years of civil war. Although twice reelected, his popularity waned as he supported Egyptian President Sadat's efforts for peace with Israel, opposed external alliances, and tried to impose strict Islamic law. In 1985, while abroad, he was deposed.

Mutanabbi, al-, 915-65, Arab poet, considered the greatest classical Arabic poet, b. Iraq. His early involvement with a religious cult earned him the sobriquet "the would-be prophet." He was part of the brilliant court of the Hamdanid ruler Sayf al-Dawlah in Aleppo, where he wrote many of his elaborate panegyrics.

Munkhafad al-Qattarah, basin, Egypt: see Qattara Depression.

Masudi, Abd al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn, d. 956, Arab historian, geographer, and philosopher, b. Baghdad. He traveled in Spain, Russia, India, Sri Lanka, and China and spent his last years in Syria and Egypt. His Muruj adh-Dhahab [meadows of gold], an epitome of a longer history of the world from creation to A.D. 947, is a compilation of his travel observations and studies. It embraces social and literary history, discussions of religions, and geographic descriptions. A French version of this work was published between 1861 and 1878. The first volume has been translated into English.

Mansur, al- [Arab.,=the victorious], d. 775, 2d Abbasid caliph (754-75) and founder of the city of Baghdad. His name was in full Abu Jafar abd-Allah al-Mansur. He was brother and successor of Abu al-Abbas. A vigorous and dominating caliph, he successfully consolidated his empire even though it was threatened by internal strife and foreign wars. He could not prevent the secession of Muslim Spain, however, under the Umayyad prince Abd ar-Rahman I. Mansur lived at first, as his brother had, near Kufa, but in 762 he began to build a new city, Baghdad.

Mansur, al- (Muhammad ibn Abi-Amir al-Mansur billah), 914-1002, Moorish regent of Córdoba, known in Spanish as Almanzor. He became steward to Princess Subh, wife of the caliph Hakim II, and under her patronage and by clever manipulation he rose to become (978) royal chamberlain for Hakim's successor, the young Hisham II. Al-Mansur kept Hisham in seclusion at his court and assumed complete control over the caliphate. A great warrior, he reorganized the army and undertook many campaigns against the Christian states of N Spain; he sacked Barcelona (985), razed the city of León (988), and destroyed the church and shrine of St. James at Santiago de Compostela (998). Before he died he appointed one of his sons as his successor.

Mamun, al- (Abu al-Abbas Abd Allah al-Mamun), 786-833, 7th Abbasid caliph (813-33); son of Harun ar-Rashid. He succeeded his brother al-Amin after a bitter civil war, but was unable to enter Baghdad until 819. He was himself one of the Mutazilites, holding that the Qur'an was created in time, i.e., that it was not an uncreated eternal existent. He persecuted the orthodox bitterly. Al-Mamun's reign was one of great cultural achievement, and he was especially interested in the work of scientists, particularly of those who knew Greek. He established (830) in Baghdad the House of Wisdom, an institution that translated Greek works into Arabic.

Maliki, Nuri Kamal al-, 1950-, Iraqi political leader. A Shiite who worked as an education official in Hilla, he was a member and, later, deputy leader of the Dawa party, a Shiite religious party that engaged in armed resistance to Saddam Hussein. Sentenced to death, Maliki fled Iraq (1980) and spent more than two decades in exile. Returning secretly to Iraqi in 2002, he was appointed to the National Council established after the United States invaded and overthrew Hussein, and was involved (2003-4) in the de-Ba'athification of the Iraqi government and civil service. Elected to the transitional National Assembly in 2005, he was involved in writing the new constitution. After the 2005 parliamentary elections, when interim Prime Minister Ibrahim al-Jaafari proved unacceptable to Sunnis and Kurds, Maliki, a close adviser to Jaafari and the spokesman for a coalition of religious Shiite parties, emerged (2006) as a U.S.-supported compromise candidate for prime minister. Regarded as tough-minded, Maliki vowed to integrate the militias into the army, but his ability to tackle Iraq's sectarian violence was hampered by his fractious "unity" government's dependence on the support of Moktada al-Sadr and of Sunni leaders with ties to insurgents.

Kitab al-Aghani [Arab.,=book of songs], collection of poems in many volumes compiled by Abu al-Faraj Ali of Esfahan. It contains poems from the oldest epoch of Arabic literature down to the 9th cent. The poems were put to music, but the musical signs are no longer readable. Because of the accompanying biographical annotations on the authors and composers, the work is an important historical source.

Kindi, al- (Abu Yusuf Yakub ibn Ishak al-Kindi), 9th cent. Arab philosopher, b. Basra, Iraq. He studied at Basra and at Baghdad and is noted as one of the earliest scholars in the Middle East to become thoroughly versed in the writings of Aristotle. In his own teachings al-Kindi undertook to demonstrate the essential harmony between the views of Plato and those of Aristotle. His philosophical ideas show some elements of Neoplatonism. He is regarded as one of the Peripatetics in Islam, and, as one of the earliest of the Muslim philosophers of Arabic descent, he has been called "the philosopher of the Arabs." He emphasized the righteousness as well as the unity of God and considered that the Creator revealing Himself in prophecy was a reasonable truth and the highest form of knowledge. In his doctrine of manifold intelligence, he defined four types of reason. Besides his translations and commentaries on Aristotle's works, he produced over 250 treatises on a great variety of subjects; although only a few on medicine and astrology are extant, in the 1940s 24 of his hitherto unknown philosophical works were found. Al-Kindi was well known to the Christian scholars of the Middle Ages. He wrote strongly in opposition to alchemy and some kinds of belief in miracles. Al-Kindi's library was confiscated later in his life by the caliph al-Mutawakkil, who looked upon philosophy with suspicion.

Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Saud, 1913-82, king of Saudi Arabia (1975-82). He became king after the assassination of his half-brother Faisal. The son of Ibn Saud, the founder of Saudi Arabia, he was the third of Ibn Saud's sons to become king. He continued the widespread economic and social reforms begun by Faisal. His half-brother Fahd succeeded him.

Jaber al-Ahmad al-Sabah, 1926-2006, emir of Kuwait (1977-2006). A member of Kuwait's ruling Sabah family, he was the third son of Sheikh Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah (r. 1921-50). Beginning in the 1940s he held several positions in the Kuwaiti government, and soon established a reputation as a shrewd and perceptive politician. After the end of the British protectorate (1961), Sheikh Jaber became Kuwait's first finance minister, and during the 1960s he established a fund that eventually grew to $120 billion and proved invaluable in sustaining the country after Kuwait was invaded by Iraq in 1990. Jaber was appointed prime minister in 1965 and was named crown prince and heir apparent the following year. He became emir in 1977; eight years later he survived an assassination attempt by a Shiite militant. After the Iraqi invasion, he established a government-in-exile in Saudi Arabia, returning to Kuwait in 1992. He frequently clashed with parliament, dissolving it in 1986 and 1999, and actively supported giving Kuwaiti women the vote, which was finally achieved in 2005.

Jaafari, Ibrahim al-, 1947-, Iraqi political leader, b. Karbala as Ibrahim al-Ashaiqer. A Shiite, a physician, and the leader of the Dawa religious party, he fled Iraq in 1980 when Saddam Hussein began exterminating Dawa party members. In exile in Iran he forged close ties with Iranian leaders, and later in England he was Dawa's head and spokesman. Returning home shortly after the U.S. invasion in 2003, he became a member of the American-backed governing council and in 2004 was appointed one of the country's two vice presidents. Al-Jaafari, who was seen as a unifying figure, led his party into the United Iraqi Alliance, a coalition of Shiite political groups, and following the elections of 2005 became prime minister of the transitional government. After new elections at the end of 2005 he was again the Shiite coalition choice for prime minister, but the Kurd and Sunni parties objected to him and after weeks of deadlock he agreed to step aside in favor of Nuri al-Maliki.

Imru al-Kais: see Amru al-Kais.

Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen, 965-c.1040, Arab mathematician. Ibn al-Haytham was born in Basra, Persia, but made his career in Cairo, where he supported himself copying scientific manuscripts. Among his original works, only those on optics, astronomy, and mathematics survive. His Optics, which relied on experiment rather than on past authority, introduced the idea that light rays emanate in straight lines in all directions from every point on a luminous surface. Latin editions of the Optics, available from the 13th cent. on, influenced Kepler and Descartes. As a cosmologist, al-Haytham tried to find mechanisms by which the heavenly bodies might be shown to follow the paths determined by Ptolemaic mathematics. In mathematics, al-Haytham elucidated and extended Euclid's Elements and suggested a proof of the parallel postulate.

Ibn al-Arabi or Ibn Arabi, Muhyi ad-Din Muhammad bin Ali al-Hatimi at-Tai, 1165-1240, a Muslim Sufi mystic b. in Murcia, Spain. As a child in Seville, Ibn al-Arabi had a formative religious experience in the aftermath of a vision. His pilgrimage to Mecca evolved into a two-year extended stay. His numerous travels, punctuated by his prolific writings, ended in Damascus, where he settled in 1230 and lived until his death. Considered one of the greatest of Islamic metaphysical thinkers, his works include al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya [Arab.,=the Meccan Revelations] in 37 volumes, begun in Mecca and containing a full exposition of his Sufi doctrine; Fusus al-Hikam, [Arab.,=Bezels of Wisdom], a summary of the teachings of 28 prophets, from Adam to Muhammad, dictated to Ibn al-Arabi by the Prophet of Islam in a dream; and Tarjuman al-Ashwaq, a love poem on which he later wrote an extensive commentary to explain its inner or hidden meaning. Ibn al-Arabi viewed the knowledge acquired through reason or through mystic states as inferior to that coming from God and acquired through a profound mystic training. God, in Ibn al-Arabi's thought, is represented as a quasi-unknowable existence free of all attributes. Ibn Arabi viewed human spiritual progress as a series of three journeys, away from, toward, and within the Divine. Not everyone could undertake these journeys, and then, only after completing a set of conditions, including silence, isolation, hunger, and sleep deprivation. Ibn al-Arabi's ideas have always been controversial among conservative Muslims. Many have considered him to be a heretic and, as recently as 1979, his al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya was banned in Egypt.

Husseini, Amin al-, 1896?-1974, Arab political and religious leader. He was inveterately opposed to the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine, and, suspected of complicity in anti-Jewish riots in Jerusalem (1920), he fled to avoid punishment. He returned under an amnesty and was appointed Grand mufti of Jerusalem by the British in 1921. He fled (1937) to Lebanon after being arrested for provoking violence between Arabs and Jews. Just before World War II, Husseini moved on to Iraq. After the abortive pro-Axis Iraqi revolt of 1941, he was flown to Rome. Then, in Berlin, Husseini broadcast Nazi propaganda and helped recruit Arab supporters for the Germans. In 1946 the mufti, escaping from house arrest near Paris, arrived in Egypt, where he lived until the early 1960s, when he moved again to Lebanon. Also called Haj Amin al-Husseini, he retired from public life after serving as president of the 1962 World Islamic Congress, which he had founded in 1931.

Hallaj, Hussein ibn Mansur al-, 857-922, Arabic-speaking Persian Muslim mystic and poet popularly known among Muslims as "the martyr of mystical love." Born a Sunni, he traveled in Persia, India, and Turkistan, and experimented with a number of religious philosophies, including Sufism, Manichaeism, and Buddhism. An ecstatic mystic, his notorious description of his union with God, ana al-haqq [Arab.,= I am the Truth], led to charges of heresy. His involvement in political intrigues lead to his arrest in 913 by the authorities in Abbasid Baghdad. Though released shortly thereafter, his enemies succeeded in re-opening the case against him, and he was tortured and executed.

Hakam II, al-, 914-76, Umayyad caliph of Córdoba (961-76), son and successor of Abd ar-Rahman III. In the early part of his reign he successfully waged war against the Christian kings, Sancho I of León and Castile and García of Navarre. His naval forces defeated Norman sea raiders and seized (976) Tangier from the Idrisids, thereby annexing Morocco to Moorish Spain. A scholar and patron of the arts and sciences, al-Hakam II made Córdoba a preeminent center of learning. He amassed a library of approximately 400,000 volumes, established numerous schools, sponsored scholars and attracted to the university founded by his father Christians and Muslims not only from Spain but from other parts of Western Europe and from Asia and Africa.

Hafez, Amin al-, 1911-, Syrian army officer and politician. He served (1963-65) as chief of state in Syria's Ba'athist government but had to flee to Lebanon (1965) after radical Ba'athist military officers, led by Nurreddin Attassi and Hafez al-Assad, toppled his government in a coup. Amin al-Hafez moved his exile to Iraq in 1968 and was sentenced to death in absentia in 1971.

Habash al-Hasib, d. c.870, Arab mathematician and astronomer. Habash al-Hasib was born in what is now Mary, Turkmenistan, and worked in Baghdad. He calculated tables of sines, tangents, and standard astronomical functions. He found formulas for calculating the positions and orbits of celestial bodies that go beyond the Ptolemaic theory on which they are based.

Ghazali, al-, 1058-1111, Islamic theologian, philosopher, and mystic. He was born at Tus in Khorasan, of Persian origin. He is considered the greatest theologian in Islam. Al-Ghazali was appointed professor at Baghdad in 1091, but following a spiritual crisis in 1095 he abandoned his career to become a mystic (see Sufism). After ten years of wandering he settled down to teach in accordance with his new mystical insights, which he formulated very closely to orthodox Islam. Al-Ghazali was the author of several important works; his Destruction of the Philosophers, written just prior to his spiritual crisis, opposes the philosophical method of approaching metaphysics when it contradicts orthodox theology. That position had a great influence on the future of speculative thought in Islam. Al-Ghazali's chief work, The Revival of the Religious Sciences, outlines a complete and orthodox system of the mystical attainment of unity with God. Al-Ghazali is most important for his attempt to reconcile mysticism with orthodox Islam. He was well known in medieval Europe by his Latin name, Algazel.

Farabi, al-, d. 950, Islamic philosopher. He studied in Baghdad and later flourished in Aleppo as a sufi mystic (see Sufism). He died in Damascus. Al-Farabi was the author of an encyclopedic work drawn largely from Aristotle; he was one of the earliest Islamic thinkers to develop a philosophical method reconciling Aristotle and Islam, though he believed human reason to be superior to revelation. Political theory was one of his major concerns; he believed that the philosopher was the proper ruler of the state. In his own philosophy he is clearly influenced by Neoplatonism, especially that of the Greek school of Alexandria. A renowned musician, he is considered the greatest Islamic music theorist. He is known in the West by the name Alfarabius.

Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud, 1905-75, king of Saudi Arabia (1964-75), son of Ibn Saud, brother of Saud. Faisal led several military campaigns in the making of Saudi Arabia. In 1958 he became premier and foreign minister in the cabinet of his brother, King Saud. Faisal was removed from office in 1960, but was reinstated as premier in 1962. Due to poor health and domestic opposition, King Saud was forced to abdicate (Nov., 1964) by the ruling family in favor of the more popularly approved Faisal. After becoming king, Faisal effected far-reaching economic, administrative, and educational reforms. He joined with other Arab nations against Israel in the 1967 Arab-Israeli War. In 1975, Faisal was shot and killed by one of his nephews; he was succeeded by his brother, Crown Prince Khalid.

Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Ismail, al- (c.810-70), Arabic scholar, b. Bukhara. He traveled widely over Muslim regions and made an authoritative collection of the hadith, the traditional sayings of the Prophet. The al-Bukhari collection is regarded by many Sunni Muslims as the most reliable commentary and a law book second only to the Qur'an. The tomb of al-Bukhari, near Samarkand, is a noted place of pilgrimage.

Banna, Hasan al-, 1906-49, Egyptian religious and political leader; founder of the Muslim Brotherhood. He was involved with traditional Islamic education in Egypt. In 1928 he formed the Society of the Muslim Brothers, which sought a return to original religious precepts. As the organization grew and became militant in the 1930s and 40s, Hasan al-Banna was viewed as a threat by the central government. He was assassinated in 1949.

Baladhuri, al-, d. c.892, Arab historian. One of the most important Arab historians, he spent most of his life in Baghdad and enjoyed great influence at the court of the caliph al-Mutawakkil. He traveled in Syria and Iraq, compiling information for his major works. He is regarded as a reliable source for the history of the early Arabs and the history of Muslim expansion.

Bakr, Ahmad Hasan al-, 1914-82, president of Iraq (1968-79). He served as an officer in the Iraqi army but was forced to retire (1958) because of his participation in revolutionary activities. A member of the Ba'ath party, an ultranationalist left-wing group, he became prime minister after the Ba'athists seized power in 1963. He left the government later in that same year when conservative military leaders forced the Ba'athists from power. Bakr became president in 1968 after leading another Ba'athist coup, and was replaced by Saddam Hussein in 1979.

Assad, Hafez al-, 1930-2000, president of Syria (1971-2000). He graduated (1955) from the Syrian Military Academy and advanced through the army ranks to become a general. He served (1966-70) as Syria's minister of defense and commander in chief of the air force. Using that position, Assad was able to become the most powerful figure in Syria, and in 1971 he became the country's president after leading a coup in late 1970. An autocratic ruler at the head of a police state, he was strongly anti-Zionist and a major supporter of Palestinian guerrilla organizations. In 1976 he sent Syrian troops as a peacekeeping force to Lebanon, where they became a force in Lebanese politics. In the 1990s, Assad sought to cultivate both the support of more militant Arab leaders and peaceful relations with the West in an attempt to regain the Golan Heights and increase Syrian influence in the Middle East.

Assad, Bashar al-, 1965-, Syrian political leader, son of Hafez al-Assad. A medical doctor, he left Syria (1992) for an ophthamology residency in London when his elder brother, Basil, his father's designated heir, was killed (1994) in an automobile accident. Assad returned to Syria and was groomed as his father's successor, attending the Homs military academy and attaining (1999) the rank of colonel. Upon the his father's death (2000), he was named head of the ruling Ba'ath party and was nominated as president; he was confirmed in the office by referendum (2000, 2005). Assad has attempted to modernize Syria and its army, making some moves toward lessening corruption and improving the economy, but he also maintained a tight hold on power and sought to maintain Syria's domination over Lebanon.

Amru al-Kais, fl. 6th cent., Arabic poet. His verse, like much of the poetry of the pre-Islamic period, is intensely subjective and stylistically perfect. He was esteemed by Arabs as the great model for erotic poetry. He is thought to have lived in high favor with the imperial court at Constantinople. Amru al-Kais' work is represented in the Muallaqat. His name is also spelled Imru al-Kais.

Al-taschith: see Aijeleth Shahar.

Al-Khowarizmi, fl. 820, Arab mathematician of the court of Mamun in Baghdad. His treatises on Hindu arithmetic and on algebra made him famous. He is said to have given algebra its name, and the word algorithm is said to have been derived from his name. Much of the mathematical knowledge of medieval Europe was derived from Latin translations of his works.

Al-Jadida: see El Jadida, Morocco.

Al-Hakam II: see Hakam II, al-.

Al-Fasi, Isaac ben Jacob ha-Kohen, 1013-1103, prominent Jewish Talmudic scholar of the very late Gaonic period, b. near Fès, N Africa. He headed the rabbinical school at Fès until forced out at the age of 75 by political intrigues. He then settled in Lucena, Spain, where he established a school. His Halachoth [book of laws] contains a digest of legal decisions distilled from the Talmud. It played a significant role in establishing the supremacy of the Babylonian over the Palestinian Talmud and the 1881 edition is appended to regular editions of the Talmud. He is also known for his collection of Responsa, many of which were written in Arabic and later translated into Hebrew.

Al-Farghani or Alfraganus, d. after 861, Arab astronomer. Al-Farghani was born in Farghana, Transoxania (present-day Fergana, Uzbekistan), and died in Egypt. His most important work, written between 833 and 857, is Elements, a thorough, readable, nonmathematical summary of Ptolemaic astronomy. The book, which circulated in several Latin editions, was widely studied in Europe from the 12th to the 17th cent. Two treatises on astrolabes by Al-Farghani also survive.

Al-Biruni or Al Beruni, Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad, b. 973, d. after 1050, Central Asian scientist. His earlier years were disturbed by political troubles, but after 1017 he was patronized by members of the Ghaznavid dynasty of Turkey. He traveled in Afghanistan and India, making astronomical and geographic observations. The largest part of his writings are on astronomy, astrology, and applied mathematics, but he also wrote on pharmacology, geography, philosophy, history, and other subjects. A taste for precise observation is shown in his determinations of latitudes and the densities of gemstones. His encyclopedic India (tr. 1888) and Chronology (tr. 1879) provide invaluable information about his time.

Al-Battani or Albatenius, b. before 858, d. 929, Arab astronomer and mathematician. He is best known in astronomy for his improvements and corrections of the Ptolemaic tradition. His Kitab al-Zij, which in Latin translation was very influential in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, contains an elaborate set of astronomical tables and discusses a wide range of practical problems in spherical astronomy, some of which were devised for the purpose of solving related astrological problems. He recognized the possibility of an annular eclipse of the sun and obtained the very accurate value of 23°35' for the obliquity of the ecliptic.

Ahmad bin Muhammad al-Barmaki al-Irbili ash-Shafii: see Ibn Khalikan.

Ahmad al-Mansur [al-Mansur,=the victorious], d. 1603, emir of Morocco (1578-1603). Proclaimed ruler after his brother's death at the battle of Ksar el Kebir, he gained prestige from the victory over Portugal. In addition, the ransom of the Portuguese captives made him wealthy. He was able to give Morocco a quarter-century of relative peace and prosperity. His conquest of Timbuktu (1590-91) marked the peak of Morocco's extension into the territory S of the Sahara. The cost of maintaining an army at so great a distance prevented him from gaining any permanent benefit from the conquest. He engaged in a commercial correspondence with Queen Elizabeth I of England and encouraged foreign trade.

Abu al-Fida, 1273-1331, Arab historian, b. Damascus. He fought against the Christians in the last period of the Crusades and later became (1310) governor of Hama in Syria. He was a patron of learning and wrote a descriptive geography and a universal history, which is a superior source for Arab history from the pre-Islamic period to 1329.

Abu al-Faraj Ali of Esfahan, 897-967, Arabic scholar from Iran. He is mainly known for his invaluable Kitab al-Aghani (book of songs), which provides detailed information about the culture and social life of medieval Islam.

Abu al-Faraj: see Bar-Hebraeus, Gregorius.

Abu al-Ala al-Maarri, 973-1057, Arab freethinking poet. He was born and lived most of his life in Maarrah, S of Aleppo. He was blind from childhood. Brilliantly original, he became one of the literary reformers who discarded classicism for a modern intellectual urbanity. After 35 he lived a life of seclusion, and with his advocacy of an utterly ascetic purity, his poetry became more stereotyped.

Abu al-Abbas as-Saffah, d. 754, 1st Abbasid caliph (749-54). Raised to the caliphate by the armed might of Abu Muslim, he took the reign name as-Saffah [shedder of blood]. Most of the Umayyad family was exterminated, and the reign was one of massacre and force. He was succeeded by his brother al-Mansur.

Abu Said ibn Abi al-Khair, 967-1049, Persian poet, a Sufi and a dervish. He was the first to write rubaiyat (quatrains) in the Sufistic strain that Omar Khayyam made famous.

Abd al-Rahman. For Muslim rulers thus named, use Abd ar-Rahman.

Abd al-Qadir: see Abd al-Kader.

Abd al-Mumin, d. 1163, founder of the empire of the Almohads. He was the favorite of the Almohad religious reformer Ibn Tumart and became (1130) his successor. Even before his rise to leadership, he had attacked the Almoravids. After long campaigns in Morocco and NW Algeria, he was able to destroy (1147) the Almoravid empire. In 1158 he invaded the Muslim states of Tunisia and NE Algeria, which had been weakened from attacks by Arab nomads and Sicilian Normans. By 1160 his rule reached from the Atlantic to Tripoli. The last years of his life were spent fighting the Christians of Spain.

Abd al-Malik, c.646-705, 5th Umayyad caliph (685-705); son of Marwan I. At his accession, Islam was torn by dissension and threatened by the Byzantine Empire. With the help of his able general al-Hajjaj, Abd al-Malik overthrew the rival caliphs and united Islam. His battles with Byzantine forces were without final result. An able administrator, he reorganized the government and introduced Arabic coins, improved postal facilities, and made Arabic the official language.

Abd al-Majid or Abdülmecit, 1823-61, Ottoman sultan (1839-61), son and successor of Mahmud II to the throne of the Ottoman Empire. The rebellion of Muhammad Ali was checked by the intervention (1840-41) of England, Russia, and Austria. Abd al-Majid was influenced by the British ambassador, Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe, who helped persuade the sultan to introduce Western reforms. Two decrees (1839, 1856) led to many changes but did not have permanent effect. Confident in British and French support, Abd al-Majid resisted (1853) the Russian claim to act as protector of the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. This was a primary cause of the Crimean War. Turkey received no concrete gains at the Congress of Paris (1856; see Paris, Congress of). The sultan was succeeded by his brother, Abd al-Aziz.

Abd al-Kader, c.1807-1883, Algerian military and religious leader. Although born to an anti-Turkish family, he was chosen emir of Mascara to fight the French invaders who had just defeated the Turks. From 1832 to 1839, by alternately fighting and coming to terms with the French, he extended his power over much of N Algeria, subduing hostile ethnic groups and organizing the countryside. Well-educated, he reformed his army along Western lines; in 1839 he proclaimed a Muslim holy war. In four years of fighting, General Bugeaud drove Abd al-Kader into Morocco, where he gained the sultan's support. The Moroccan defeat at Isly (1844) soon forced the sultan to repudiate his ally. Abd al-Kader surrendered in 1847 and was imprisoned in France until 1852. Abd al-Kader remains greatly respected by the Algerians.

Abd al-Hamid II, 1842-1918, Ottoman sultan (1876-1909). His uncle, Abd al-Aziz, was deposed from the throne of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) in 1876 by the Young Turks, a liberal reformist group. Abd al-Hamid's brother, Murad V, succeeded as sultan, but was shortly declared insane, and Abd al-Hamid ascended the throne. He at first accepted (1876) the constitution promulgated by Midhat Pasha but soon suspended it, dismissed Midhat, and eventually had him strangled. The war with Russia (see Russo-Turkish Wars) led to the Treaty of San Stefano, subsequently modified by the Congress of Berlin (see Berlin, Congress of). To save what remained of his empire, the sultan then pursued a policy of friendship with Germany. German officers reorganized the Turkish army, and German business interests obtained concessions, most notably for the construction of the Baghdad Railway. For his part in the Armenian massacres of 1894-96, he was called the Great Assassin and the Red Sultan. Ruling as absolute monarch, Abd al-Hamid lived in virtual seclusion. In 1908 the Young Turks, who had penetrated the armed services, revolted and forced the sultan to adhere to the constitution of 1876. He was deposed (1909) when he tried to plot a counterrevolution and was succeeded by his brother, Muhammad V.

Abd al-Hamid I or Abdülhamit, 1725-89, Ottoman sultan (1774-89), brother and successor of Mustafa III. His reign, one of decline for the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), saw the end of the war of 1768-74 and the beginning of the war of 1787-91 with Catherine II of Russia (see Russo-Turkish Wars). The peace terms in 1774 (see Kuchuk Kainarji, Treaty of) established Russia as the foremost power in the Middle East and had incalculable effects. In 1775, Austria, jealous of Russian expansion, forced the Turks to cede Bukovina. Abd al-Hamid was succeeded by his nephew, Selim III.

Abd al-Hafiz, 1875?-1937, sultan of Morocco (1908-12). Placed on the throne by the revolution that deposed his brother Abd al-Aziz IV, he was soon confronted with uprisings and the demands of European creditors. Besieged (1911) at Fès by rebels, he was relieved by a French army. On Mar. 30, 1912, he accepted a French protectorate, and on Aug. 12 he abdicated.

Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud: see Ibn Saud.

Abd al-Aziz IV, 1880-1943, sultan of Morocco (1894-1908), son of Hassan. His weak control was evident after the death (c.1900) of the regent Ba Ahmed. His submissiveness to foreign influence, his indulgence in European luxuries (which Muslims considered unbefitting his position as religious leader), and his reorganization of the tax system led to widespread unrest. The Franco-British agreement of 1904 furnished a pretext for French demands that led in 1906 to the Algeciras Conference (see Morocco). Moroccan disapproval of the settlement led to revolt; Abd al-Aziz was deposed (1908) by his brother Abd al-Hafiz.

Abd al-Aziz or Abdülaziz, 1830-76, Ottoman sultan (1861-76), brother and successor of Abd al-Majid. The economic and political reforms enacted under his rule could not outpace the decline of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). In 1875 his bankrupt government repudiated the interest on the huge loans raised in Western Europe; this act led to foreign control over part of the Ottoman revenues. Romania, Serbia, and Egypt gained virtual independence, and revolts broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bulgaria. Political decay was paralleled, however, by cultural rebirth. Many important schools were founded, and newspapers helped to educate the Turks politically. In 1876, Midhat Pasha, foremost among the liberals, overthrew Abd al-Aziz, who died a few days later, probably by suicide. He was succeeded by his nephew, Murad V.

In Islam, the central doctrine that calls on believers to combat the enemies of their religion. According to the Qurhamzahān and the Hsubdotadīth, jihad is a duty that may be fulfilled in four ways: by the heart, the tongue, the hand, or the sword. The first way (known in Sufism as the “greater jihad”) involves struggling against evil desires. The ways of the tongue and hand call for verbal defense and right actions. The jihad of the sword involves waging war against enemies of Islam. Believers contend that those who die in combat become martyrs and are guaranteed a place in paradise. In the 20th and 21st centuries the concept of jihad has sometimes been used as an ideological weapon in the effort to combat Western influences and secular governments and to establish an ideal Islamic society.

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in full Abū Bakr Muhsubdotammad ibn Zakariyyāhamzah al-Rāzī Latin Rhazes

(born circa 865, Rayy, Persia—died 925 or 935, Rayy) Persian alchemist and philosopher. He saw himself as the Islamic heir of Socrates in philosophy and of Hippocrates in medicine. In The Comprehensive Book, he surveyed Greek, Syrian, early Arabic, and some Indian medical knowledge, adding his own comments. A number of his works were translated into Latin and other languages. One such, The Spiritual Physick of Rhazes, is a popular ethical treatise and major alchemical study. He called himself a follower of Plato but disagreed with Arabic interpreters of Plato. His theory of the composition of matter is similar to that of Democritus. He was considered one of the greatest physicians of the early Islamic world.

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or Muaynammar al-Qadhdhāfī

(born 1942, Surt, Libya) Ruler of Libya from 1969. Son of a Bedouin farmer, he was born in a tent in the desert. He graduated from the University of Libya and Libya's military academy and was a devout Muslim and ardent nationalist. As a captain in the army, he led the 1969 coup that deposed King Idrīs I. He espoused his own form of Islamic socialism, and his foreign policy was anti-Western and anti-Israel. In 1970 he closed U.S. and British military bases and expelled Italians and Jews. He banned alcoholic beverages and gambling and in 1973 nationalized the oil industry. He made unsuccessful attempts to unify Libya with other countries. His government was repeatedly linked with terrorist incidents in Europe and elsewhere, and he supported groups trying to overthrow neighbouring governments. He narrowly escaped death in 1986 when U.S. planes bombed sites in Libya, including his own residence.

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orig. Abū aynAlī Hsubdotasan ibn aynAlī

(born circa 1018/19, Tsubdotūs, Khorāsān, Iran—died Oct. 14, 1092, Nahāvand) Persian vizier of the Turkish Seljūq dynasty sultans. He worked for the rulers of the Ghaznavid dynasty before serving Alp-Arslan as governor of Khorāsān. In 1063 he was made vizier, a position he occupied for 30 years, serving Alp-Arslan's son Malik-Shah from the latter's ascension. Believing that a ruler's power should be absolute and that the ruler should preserve the kingdom's stability and traditions, he recorded his views in the Seyāsat-nāmeh (“Book of Government”). He is seen as the quintessential vizier and as a staunch Sunnite Muslim. He promoted the madrasah as a centre of learning, partly to combat Shīaynite propaganda. He was murdered, likely by an Ismāaynīlī Assassin, after falling out of favour with Malik-Shah.

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(born 915, Al-Kūfah, Iraq—died Sept. 23, 965, near Dayr al-aynAmacrqūl) Poet regarded by many as the greatest in the Arabic language. Al-Mutanabbī received an education, unusual for his time and rank, because of his poetic talent. He lived among the Bedouin and, claiming to be a prophet, led an unsuccessful Muslim revolt in Syria. After two years' imprisonment he recanted and became a wandering poet, eventually leaving Syria for Egypt and Iran. He primarily wrote panegyrics in a flowery, bombastic style marked by improbable metaphors. His poetic voice is proud and arrogant in tone, and his verse is crafted with consummate skill and artistry. His powerful influence on Arabic poetry persisted into modern times.

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or Muaynammar al-Qadhdhāfī

(born 1942, Surt, Libya) Ruler of Libya from 1969. Son of a Bedouin farmer, he was born in a tent in the desert. He graduated from the University of Libya and Libya's military academy and was a devout Muslim and ardent nationalist. As a captain in the army, he led the 1969 coup that deposed King Idrīs I. He espoused his own form of Islamic socialism, and his foreign policy was anti-Western and anti-Israel. In 1970 he closed U.S. and British military bases and expelled Italians and Jews. He banned alcoholic beverages and gambling and in 1973 nationalized the oil industry. He made unsuccessful attempts to unify Libya with other countries. His government was repeatedly linked with terrorist incidents in Europe and elsewhere, and he supported groups trying to overthrow neighbouring governments. He narrowly escaped death in 1986 when U.S. planes bombed sites in Libya, including his own residence.

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or Giza

City (pop., 2006: 2,950,000), Upper Egypt. Located on the western bank of the Nile River, it is a suburb of Cairo. A noted entertainment district, it is also the centre of Egypt's motion-picture industry. Rising just west of the city are the Great Sphinx and the Pyramids of Giza (see pyramid), built during Egypt's 4th dynasty (circa 2613–circa 2494 BC).

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(born March 763 or February 766, Rayy, Iran—died March 24, 809, Tsubdotūs, Iran) Fifth caliph of the aynAbbāsid dynasty. Neither a great ruler nor a prepossessing character, Hārūn ruled (786–809) at a time when Islamic society reached its zenith in terms of wealth, learning, and power. He is best remembered, however, as a central character in The Thousand and One Nights, where he is portrayed as the epitome of the learned and just ruler. In his early years he was strongly influenced by his mother and by his tutor Yahsubdotyā of the Barmakid line of viziers. He succeeded his brother after the latter's untimely death and ruled over a realm that was torn increasingly by strife, as regional leaders sought autonomy. On his death, his sons al-Mahamzahmun and al-Amīn fell into open civil war.

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(born Oct. 6, 1930, Qardāhsubdota, Syria—died June 10, 2000, Damascus) President of Syria (1971–2000). He joined the Baaynth Party in 1946 and in 1955 became an air force pilot. He became air force commander (1963) after helping the Baaynthists gain power. After participating in a military coup in 1966, he became minister of defense. He led a coup in 1970 to replace his political mentor, Ssubdotalāhsubdot al-Jadīd, as Syria's leader. He joined Egypt in a surprise attack on Israel (1973) but nearly 20 years later (1991) participated in peace negotiations with Israel in an effort to regain the Golan Heights, taken by Israel in the Six-Day War of 1967. A longtime foe of Iraqi leader Ssubdotaddām Hsubdotussein, he supported the Western alliance against Iraq in the Persian Gulf War (1990–91). He was succeeded by his son Bashshār.

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or al-Ghazzālī in full Abū Hsubdotāmid Muhsubdotammad ibn Muhsubdotammad al-Tsubdotūsī al-Ghazālī

(born 1058, Tsubdotūs, Iran—died Dec. 18, 1111, Tsubdotūs) Muslim theologian and mystic. He studied philosophy and religion and became chief professor of the Nizsubdotāmiyyah college in Baghdad in 1091. A spiritual crisis prompted him to abandon his career in 1095 and adopt the life of a poor Sufi. He did not return to teaching until 1106, persuaded by those who believed he was a centennial renewer of Islam. His great work, Ihsubdotyāhamzah aynulūm al-dīn (“Revival of the Religious Sciences”), explained Islamic doctrines and practices and traced their connection with Sufi mysticism.

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in full Muhsubdotammad ibn Muhsubdotammad ibn Tsubdotarkhān ibn Uzalagh al-Fārābī Latin Alpharabius or Avennasar

(born circa 878, Turkistan—died circa 950, Damascus?) A logician and one of the great philosophers of medieval Islam. He was probably the son of one of the caliph's Turkish bodyguards, and he grew up in Baghdad. From 942 he resided at the court of Prince Sayf al-Dawlah. Greatly influenced by Baghdad's Greek heritage in philosophy, especially the writings of Aristotle, he was known as the Second Teacher or the Second Aristotle. He used Artistotle's ideas in his proof of the existence of God and was influenced also by Neoplatonic ideas and Sufi mysticism. Like Plato, he believed it was the philosopher's task to provide guidance to the state. He wrote more than 100 works, notably The Ideas of the Citizens of the Virtuous City.

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or Basra

Port and city (pop., 2003 est.: 1,400,000), southeastern Iraq. It lies at the head of the Shatt al-Arab, about 70 mi (110 km) upstream from the Persian Gulf. Founded in AD 638, it became famous under the aynAbbāsid dynasty; in The Thousand and One Nights it was the city from which Sindbad the Sailor set sail. In the 17th–18th centuries it became a trading centre. Occupied by the British in World War I (1914–18), the town and port underwent many improvements and grew in importance. After World War II (1939–45), the growth of Iraq's petroleum industry turned Al-Bassubdotrah into a major refining centre. It suffered heavy damage in the Iran-Iraq War (1980–90) and the Persian Gulf War (1990–91), and in the early 21st century it was a scene of fighting during the Iraq War.

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