Young, John Russell, 1840-99, American journalist, b. Ireland. He started his newspaper career with the Philadelphia Press and by 1862 was its managing editor. From 1866 to 1869 he was managing editor of the New York Tribune. Young was sent abroad in the 1870s on missions for the government and for the New York Herald. He reported one of his trips in Around the World with General Grant (1879). Later he was minister to China (1882-85), and he played an important role in the negotiations that resulted in the French protectorate over Indochina. In 1897 he was made Librarian of Congress.

Sturgis, Russell, 1836-1909, American architect and writer, b. Baltimore co., Md., grad. College of the City of New York, 1856. He practiced architecture until 1880; the buildings he designed include the Flower Hospital in New York City and a chapel and several dormitories at Yale Univ. A leading authority on the history of architecture and art, Sturgis published many articles and gave lectures at universities and museums. He was first president (1895-97) of the Fine Arts Federation and president (1889-93) of the Architectural League of New York. His writings include European Architecture (1896), A Dictionary of Architecture and Building (3 vol., 1901-2), and History of Architecture (4 vol., 1906-15; Vol. III-IV completed after his death by A. L. Frothingham, Jr.).

Sage, Russell, 1815-1906, American financier, b. Oneida co., N.Y. He was successful in the grocery business in Troy, N.Y. Active in public affairs, he became (1845) alderman of Troy and served (1853-56) as a Whig member of Congress. He continued to amass great wealth by banking, and after moving (1863) to New York City he engaged in stock speculation. In association with Jay Gould, he gained extensive financial control in several Western railroads, in the elevated railway system in New York City, and in the Western Union Telegraph Company. An attempt to assassinate him in 1891 failed, resulting in the death of the would-be assassin, Henry Norcross. Upon Sage's death, the distribution of his fortune was left in the hands of his widow, Margaret Olivia Slocum Sage, 1828-1918. She made large gifts to the Emma Willard School and to the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy; established Russell Sage College; and donated money to other educational organizations and to benevolent societies. Marsh Island in the Gulf of Mexico was bought by her in 1912 and given to Louisiana as a bird sanctuary. The great single benefaction was the establishment (1907) of the Russell Sage Foundation in New York City. This institution, endowed with a total of $15 million for "the improvement of social and living conditions" in the United States, did pioneer work in cooperating with various social agencies. In addition to conducting research activities in social welfare, public health, education, government, and law, the foundation has also been concerned with the possibilities of increased use of social-science techniques in the practicing professions.

Russell, William, 5th earl and 1st duke of Bedford: see Russell, family.

Russell, William Fletcher, 1890-1956, American educator, b. Delhi, N.Y., grad. Cornell Univ., 1910, Ph.D. Columbia, 1914; son of James Earl Russell. He was dean (1917-23) of the College of Education, State Univ. of Iowa, and professor of education (1923-54) and associate director of the International Institute (1923-27) at Teachers College, Columbia. In 1927 he succeeded his father as dean of Teachers College, and he was later appointed (1949) president of the school. He retired in 1954. Russell wrote Economy in Secondary Education (1916), Education in the United States (1917), and The Meaning of Democracy (with T. H. Briggs, 1941) and edited The Rise of a University (Vol. I, 1937).

Russell, Richard B., 1897-1971, American political leader, b. Winder, Ga. The son of a justice of the Georgia Supreme Court, he began his political career as a state representative (1921-31) and then governor (1931-32). From 1932 to 1971, he was a Democratic member of the U.S. Senate. A supporter of the New Deal, he was chairman of the Armed Services Committee (1951-53, 1955-69) and widely regarded as one of the most powerful members of the Senate. In his last decades he was a leading opponent of civil-rights legislation, and broke with his former protégé, President Lyndon Johnson, over the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act.

Russell, Morgan, 1886-1953, American painter, b. New York City. Russell, together with Stanton Macdonald-Wright, founded synchromism in Paris in 1913. Structuring his paintings on interlocking planes of color, Russell created volume and mass with color alone, as in Synchromy in Orange: To Form (1913-14).

Russell, Mary Annette (Beauchamp) Russell, Countess, pseud. Elizabeth, 1866-1941, English novelist, b. Sydney, Australia; cousin of Katherine Mansfield. In 1890 she married Count Henning von Arnim and went to live in Germany. There she wrote her first novel, Elizabeth and Her German Garden (1898), which was immediately successful, and its successors, including The Solitary Summer (1899), Adventures of Elizabeth in Rügen (1904), and The Pastor's Wife (1914). Highly autobiographical, her novels are witty, gay, and gently satirical. Her husband died in 1910, and in 1916 she married the 2d Earl Russell, brother of Bertrand Russell. Among her later works are The Enchanted April (1922); Love (1925); Jasmine Farm (1934); and Mr. Skeffington (1940).

Russell, Lord William, 1639-83, English statesman; younger son of the 1st duke of Bedford. He entered Parliament in 1660. Contempt for the dissolute court and fear of Roman Catholicism and of France led him to join the opposition to Charles II. However, he was prepared to negotiate (1678) with his relative, the marquis de Ruvigny, agent of Louis XIV, for aid to secure the dissolution of Parliament and the overthrow of the earl of Danby. In the excitement over the Popish Plot (1678) he joined the 1st earl of Shaftesbury in demanding the indictment of the duke of York (later James II) and in pressing the bill to exclude him from the succession. With the temporary Whig success he became (1679) a privy councilor, but he was arrested (1683), tried, and convicted of treason for his supposed implication in the Rye House Plot. Executed in 1683, he was exonerated by the reversal of attainder under William III.

Russell, Lillian, 1861-1922, American singer and actress, b. Clinton, Iowa. Her original name was Helen Louise Leonard. She first appeared in light opera in 1879. In the early 1880s her introduction by Tony Pastor at his casino in New York City launched her career as "The American Beauty." After 1899 she appeared at Weber and Fields's Music Hall, with the McCaull Opera Company, and later with her own company. She was noted for her flamboyant personality and for her love of jewelry. Her affair with "Diamond Jim" Brady has become a legend.

Russell, John, dukes and earls of Bedford: see Russell, family.

Russell, John Russell, 1st Earl, 1792-1878, British statesman; younger son of the 6th duke of Bedford, known most of his life as Lord John Russell. He became a Whig member of Parliament in 1813 and soon began his long career as a liberal reformer. He worked for Catholic Emancipation, leading the attack on the Test and Corporation acts, which were repealed in 1828. As paymaster general in the ministry of the 2d Earl Grey, Russell helped prepare and introduce the Reform Bill of 1832 (see under Reform Acts). His advocacy of the reduction of Irish church revenues helped bring down the Whig government in 1834, but when the Whigs returned to power (1835), Russell became home secretary and later secretary for war and the colonies (1839). In the meantime he had given the name to the newly emerging Liberal party and become one of its chief spokesmen. Russell led the opposition during the second ministry (1841-46) of Sir Robert Peel and, following the repeal of the corn laws (which Russell supported), succeeded him as prime minister. During his ministry Russell used public works, grants, and other relief to help the Irish during the potato famine and supported the bill (1847) that limited the working day to 10 hr for many laborers. In 1851 he demanded the resignation of his foreign secretary, Viscount Palmerston, for his unauthorized approval of Napoleon III's coup in France, and the following year Palmerston helped secure the fall of Russell's ministry. Russell served (1852-55) in Lord Aberdeen's coalition government and represented (1855) England at Vienna in an unsuccessful conference to end the Crimean War. He was reconciled with Palmerston and, as his foreign secretary (1859-65), vigorously advocated neutrality in the American Civil War and supported the Risorgimento in Italy. He had been made an earl in 1861 and became prime minister again on Palmerston's death in 1865. For many years an advocate of further parliamentary reform, he attempted to push through a new Reform Bill, but the bill was defeated and caused the fall of his ministry in 1866. Among Russell's literary and historical writings are a translation of Schiller's Don Carlos and biographies of Lord William Russell (1819) and of Charles James Fox (3 vol., 1853-57).

Russell, James Earl, 1864-1945, American educator, b. Hamden, N.Y., grad. Cornell Univ., 1887, Ph.D. Leipzig, 1894. From 1895 to 1897 he was professor of philosophy and pedagogy at the Univ. of Colorado. In 1897 he became professor of education at Teachers College, Columbia, and in the following year was appointed dean. Under Russell's leadership Teachers College developed from a small normal school into a major professional training center. In 1927 he became dean emeritus, but he remained professor of education until 1931. His writings include The Extension of University Teaching in England and America (1895), Trend in American Education (1922), and Founding Teachers College (1937).

Russell, Henry Norris, 1877-1957, American astronomer, b. Oyster Bay, N.Y., grad. Princeton, 1897. In 1902 he went to Cambridge, England, to study. He returned to Princeton in 1905, was professor of astronomy there (1911-27), research professor (1927-47), and director of the observatory (1912-47). In 1947 he became research associate at the Harvard Observatory. Russell established a method of determining the dimensions of eclipsing binary stars. With Ejnar Hertzsprung he devised the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. His spectroscopic studies resulted in his development of a theory of stellar evolution. He wrote Determinations of Stellar Parallax (1911), Astronomy (1926-27), Fate and Freedom (1927), The Solar System and Its Origin (1935), and The Masses of the Stars (with C. E. Moore, 1940).

Russell, George William, pseud. A. E., 1867-1935, Irish author, b. Lurgan, educated in Dublin. An active member of the Irish nationalist movement, he edited the Irish Homestead (1904-23) and the Irish Statesman (1923-30). He worked with Sir Horace Plunkett for Irish agricultural improvement, and he was also a talented amateur painter and a renowned conversationalist. Russell was one of the major writers in the Irish literary renaissance. His poems and plays are noted for their mystical tone, their delicate melodious style, and their view of humanity's spiritual nature. Among his works are Homeward: Songs by the Way (1894), The Candle of Vision (1918), and Selected Poems (1935).

Russell, Francis, dukes and earls of Bedford: see Russell, family.

Russell, Charles Taze, 1852-1916, founder of the movement whose followers are known as Russellites, as Bible Students, and (since 1931) as Jehovah's Witnesses, b. Pittsburgh, Pa. There he predicted (1872) the second coming of Christ and the millennium. In 1878 he organized his followers as an independent church. His teachings were spread through the Watch Tower, which Russell began to publish in 1879. In 1909 he moved his headquarters to the Brooklyn Tabernacle, New York City. Russell was involved in scandals, which somewhat tarnished his reputation, but his sect, nonetheless, flourished. His writings are contained in a series of books under the title Millennial Dawn (6 vol., 1886-1904).

Russell, Charles Marion, 1864-1926, American painter, b. Oak Hill, Mo. He was one of the two greatest and most popular painters of the American West (the other was Frederic Remington). A stalwart individualist, Russell first earned his living as a trapper and cowboy, later translating his passion for adventure and American wildlife onto canvas for his own amusement. Russell's works are filled with the movement of cowboys, Native Americans (with whom he lived for a time), and galloping horses. His mural Lewis and Clark Meeting the Flathead Indians (1912) is in the Montana State Capitol, Helena. A museum was built to honor Russell's work in Great Falls, Mont.

Russell, Charles Edward, 1860-1941, American author, b. Davenport, Iowa. He was a prominent newspaper editor (1894-1902) in New York and Chicago. A member of the Socialist party before World War I, he declined the party's presidential nomination in 1916. His many books include The Uprising of the Many (1907), Why I Am a Socialist (1910), These Shifting Scenes (1914), and the biography The American Orchestra and Theodore Thomas (1927, Pulitzer Prize).

Russell, Bill (William Felton Russell), 1934-, American basketball player, b. Monroe, La. Named All-American while on the Univ. of San Francisco team, he played on the gold-medal-winning U.S. team at the 1956 Olympics. That year he joined the Boston Celtics; in his 13 seasons with the team he won the Most Valuable Player award five times. Since leaving the Celtics in 1969 he has been a television sports announcer and the coach (1973-77) of the Seattle SuperSonics. His autobiography, Second Wind, appeared in 1979.

Russell, Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3d Earl, 1872-1970, British philosopher, mathematician, and social reformer, b. Trelleck, Wales.

Life

The Early Years

Russell had a distinguished background: His grandfather Lord John Russell introduced the Reform Bill of 1832 and was twice prime minister; his parents were both prominent freethinkers; and his informal godfather was John Stuart Mill. Orphaned as a small child, Russell was reared by his paternal grandmother under stern puritanic rule. That experience powerfully affected his thinking on matters of morality and education. Russell studied at Trinity College, Cambridge (1890-94), where later he was a fellow (1895-1901) and a lecturer (1910-16). It was during this time that he published his most important works in philosophy and mathematics, The Principles of Mathematics (1903) and, with A. N. Whitehead, Principia Mathematica (3 vol., 1910-13), and also had as his student Ludwig Wittgenstein.

The Middle Years

World War I had a crucial effect on Russell: until that time he had thought of himself as a philosopher and mathematician. Although he had already embraced pacifism, it was in reaction to the war that he became passionately concerned with social issues. His active pacifism at the time of the war inspired public resentment, caused him to be dismissed from Cambridge, attacked by former associates, and fined by the government (which confiscated and sold his library when he refused to pay), and led finally to a six-month imprisonment in 1918. From 1916 until the late 1930s, Russell held no academic position and supported himself mainly by writing and by public lecturing. In 1927 he and his wife, Dora, founded the experimental Beacon Hill School, which influenced the development of other schools in Britain and America.

He succeeded to the earldom in 1931 and in 1938 began teaching in the United States, first at the Univ. of Chicago and then at the Univ. of California at Los Angeles. In 1941 he went to teach at the Barnes Foundation in Merion, Pa., after his appointment to the College of the City of New York was canceled as a result of a celebrated legal battle occasioned by protest against his liberal views, particularly those on sex. These views, much distorted by his critics, had appeared in Marriage and Morals (1929), where he took liberal positions on divorce, adultery, and homosexuality. In 1944 he was restored to a fellowship at Cambridge. In 1950 he received the Nobel Prize in Literature.

The Later Years

Prior to World War II, in the face of the Nazi threat, Russell abandoned his pacifist stance; but after the war he again became a leading spokesman for pacifism and especially for the unilateral renunciation (by Great Britain) of atomic weapons. In 1961 his activity in mass demonstrations to ban nuclear weapons led once more to his imprisonment. He organized, but was unable to attend, what was called the war crimes tribunal, held in Stockholm in 1967, presided over by Jean-Paul Sartre, and directed against U.S. activities in Vietnam. Almost until his death he was active in social reform.

Philosopher and Mathematician

Throughout his life his dissent had scorned easy popularity with either the right or the left. Untamable, he had profound trust in the ultimate power of rationality, which he voiced with an undogmatic but quenchless zeal. Philosophically and ethically Russell's thought grew in reaction against the extremes he encountered. He answered the idealism of F. H. Bradley and J. M. E. McTaggart with a logical atomism founded on a rigorous empirical base: he was deeply convinced of the logical independence of individual facts and the dependence of knowledge on the data of original experience. His emphasis on logical analysis influenced the course of British philosophy in the 20th cent.

One of his most important notions was that of the logical construct, the realization that an object normally thought of as a unity was actually constructed from various, discrete, simpler empirical observations. The technique of logical constructionism was first employed in his mathematical theory. Under the influence of the symbolic logic of Giuseppe Peano, Russell tried to show that mathematics could be explained by the rules of formal logic. His demonstration involved showing that mathematical entities could be "constructed" from the less problematic entities of logic. Later he applied the technique to concepts such as physical objects and the mind.

Although he came to have misgivings about logical atomism and never assented to all the propositions of empiricism, he never ceased trying to base his thought—mathematical, philosophical, or ethical—not on vague principle but on actual experience. This can be seen in his pacifism as well as in his philosophy: he objected to specific wars in specific circumstances. So, in the circumstances preceding World War II he could abandon pacifism and, following the war, resume it.

Similarly, in ethics he described himself as a relativist. Good and evil he saw to be resolvable in (or constructed from) individual desires. He did distinguish, however, between what he called "personal" and "impersonal" desires, those founded mainly on self-interest and those formed regardless of self-interest. He admitted difficulties with this ethical stance, as well as with his logical atomism. As much as anything, his thought was characterized by a pervasive skepticism, toward his own thought as well as that of others.

Social Reformer

As with his philosophical stance, Russell's positions on social issues developed as a reaction against extremes in his own experience. He believed that cruelty and an admiration for violence grew from inward or outward defects that were largely an outcome of what happened to people when they were very young. Pacifism could not be effected politically; a peaceful and happy world could not be achieved without deep changes in education. "I believe that nine out of ten who have had a conventional upbringing in their early years have become in some degree incapable of a decent and sane attitude toward marriage and sex generally."

His objections to religion were similarly based. What he tried to draw attention to was the destructiveness of accepting propositions on faith—in the absence of, or even in opposition to, evidence. "The important thing is not what you believe, but how you believe it." The person who bases his belief on reason will support it by argument and be ready to abandon the position if the argument fails. Belief based on faith concludes that argument is useless and resorts to "force either in the form of persecution or by stunting and distorting the minds of the young whenever [it] has the power to control their education."

If Russell's logic was not always unassailable, his life showed that ethical relativism could be combined with a passionate social conscience, and that passionate commitment could be stated without dogmatism. In his autobiography (3 vol., 1967-69) Russell summarized his personal philosophy by saying, "Three passions, simple but overwhelmingly strong, have governed my life: the longing for love, the search for knowledge, and unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind."

Russell of Killowen, Charles Russell, Baron, 1832-1900, British jurist, b. Ireland. He practiced law in Belfast and London before his election to Parliament as a Liberal in 1880. In the Commons he worked for the conciliation of Ireland, and he was the leading counsel for Charles Stewart Parnell before the Parnell Commission (1888-90). He served as William Gladstone's attorney general (1886, 1892-94) and in 1894 became lord chief justice, the first Roman Catholic to hold that office since the Reformation. Russell served as counsel (1893) in the Bering Sea Fur-Seal Controversy and in 1899 was one of the Venezuela Boundary Arbitration Tribunal.

Russell Cave National Monument: see National Parks and Monuments (table).

Russell, English noble family. It first appeared prominently in the reign of Henry VIII when John Russell, 1st earl of Bedford, 1486?-1555, rose to military and diplomatic importance. He was lord high steward and lord keeper of the privy seal under Henry VIII and Edward VI, was created 1st earl of Bedford in 1550, and had a part in arranging the marriage of Mary I to Philip II of Spain. He died possessing great wealth and lands, which have remained in the family until the 20th cent.; these now include Woburn Abbey and large parts of Bloomsbury in London. His son, Francis Russell, 2d earl of Bedford, 1527?-1585, was an influential privy councilor under Elizabeth I and president of the council of Wales. Francis Russell, 4th earl of Bedford, 1593-1641, was the most important opponent of Charles I in the House of Lords and was the brightest hope for reconciliation between king and Parliament when he suddenly died in 1641. He also began the draining of the Fens. William Russell, 5th earl and 1st duke of Bedford, 1613-1700, fought first for Parliament and then for the king in the civil war. His son was Lord William Russell (see separate article). In 1694, when his son's attainder was reversed, the 5th earl was made duke of Bedford, a title that had been held in the 15th cent. by John of Lancaster, brother of King Henry V. John Russell, 4th duke of Bedford, 1710-71, was one of the politicians who attacked Robert Walpole and served in the cabinets of Henry Pelham, duke of Newcastle, Lord Bute, and George Grenville. He was the leader of a faction of Whig politicians, known as the Bedford group, which had considerable electoral power. Francis Russell, 5th duke of Bedford, 1765-1802, was a follower of Charles James Fox and one of the friends of the prince of Wales (later George IV). His criticism of Edmund Burke's pension elicited Burke's Letter to a Noble Lord (1796). Bedford was a notable stockbreeder. One of the most outstanding members of the family was the 5th duke's nephew, John Russell, 1st Earl Russell (see separate article). His grandson Bertrand Russell (see separate article) became 3d Earl Russell. The current duke, Andrew Ian Henry Russell, 15th duke of Bedford, 1962-, succeeded to the title in 2003. The family seat is Woburn Abbey (see Woburn, England).

Pope, John Russell, 1874-1937, American architect, b. New York City, studied at the College of the City of New York and the School of Mines, Columbia (Ph.B., 1894). He won a fellowship (1895) to the American Academy in Rome. Pope's firm, established in New York City in 1900, consistently produced dignified architecture of classical inspiration. His designs include a long list of town and country residences. His public works at Washington, D.C., include the Scottish Rite Temple, the National Archives Building, Constitution Hall for the Daughters of the American Revolution, and the National Gallery of Art.

Mitford, Mary Russell, 1787-1855, English author. Her first volume of poetry (1810) sold well despite adverse criticism. Later she turned to playwriting, writing one notable success, Rienzi (1828). Our Village (5 vol., 1824-32), a series of gently humorous rural sketches, established her reputation and gained for her a wide following. Her later works include a novel, Belford Regis (1835); other series of tales, such as Atherton (1854); and Recollections of a Literary Life (1852).

Mallory, Stephen Russell, c.1813-73, U.S. Senator, secretary of the navy in the Confederacy, b. Trinidad, West Indies. He was raised in Key West, Fla., where he practiced law and was a customs official. Elected to the U.S. Senate in 1851 and reelected in 1857, Mallory served until Florida seceded. Long chairman of the Senate committee on naval affairs, he became (Feb., 1861) secretary of the navy in the Confederacy. Mallory ardently advocated ironclad warships for the navy. However, efforts to secure ironclads from England and France proved futile, and of the few constructed in the Confederacy the most outstanding, the Virginia (see Monitor and Merrimack) and the Mississippi, had to be destroyed to prevent their falling into Union hands. Mallory was captured in flight with Jefferson Davis in 1865 and was imprisoned. On his release in 1866, he resumed the practice of law in Florida.

Lowell, James Russell, 1819-91, American poet, critic, and editor, b. Cambridge, Mass. He was influential in revitalizing the intellectual life of New England in the mid-19th cent. Educated at Harvard (B.A., 1838; LL.B., 1840), he abandoned law for literature. In 1843 he started a literary magazine, the Pioneer, which failed after two issues. The next year Lowell married Maria White, an ardent abolitionist and liberal, who encouraged him in his work. Lowell's Poems (1844, 1846), A Fable for Critics (1848), The Vision of Sir Launfal (1848), and The Bigelow Papers (1848; 2d series, 1867) brought him considerable notice as a poet and critic. The best remembered of these are The Bigelow Papers, political and social lampoons written in Yankee dialect, which established his reputation as a satirist and a wit. The first of these two series of verses expressed opposition to the Mexican War, and the second supported the cause of the North in the Civil War. In 1855, Lowell became professor of modern languages at Harvard, a position he held until 1876. In addition to teaching, he served as first editor (1857-61) of the Atlantic Monthly and later (1864-72) of the North American Review. In his later writings he turned to scholarship and criticism. Collections of his essays and literary studies appeared as Fireside Travels (1864), Among My Books (1870; 2d series, 1876), and My Study Windows (1871). In 1877 he was appointed minister to London, where he remained until 1885. While abroad Lowell did much to increase the respect of foreigners for American letters and American institutions; his speeches in England, published as Democracy and Other Addresses (1887), are among his best work. Lowell's letters (ed. by C. E. Norton, 2 vol., 1893) and New Letters (ed. by M. A. De Wolfe Howe, 1932) remain valuable for their shrewd and lively comments on public affairs and the literary activities of his generation.

Lange, David Russell, 1942-2005, New Zealand politician. After receiving his law degree (LL.M., 1970) he fought for the rights of the underprivileged in Auckland, and was elected to the House of Representatives as a Labor party member in 1977. He became deputy leader of the party in 1979 and leader in 1983. After Labor won the 1984 general election on a non-nuclear defense platform, he became prime minister. Lange encouraged free market reforms and cut the federal budget, and he drew the ire of the United States when he banned nuclear-armed or nuclear-powered ships from New Zealand's ports in 1985. He resigned as prime minister in 1989 when faced with a revolt within Labor over his economic reforms, but he remained in parliament until his death.

Jack Russell terrier, breed of dog developed in the 19th cent. by an English clergyman, the Reverend John (Parson Jack) Russell, 1795-1883, for hunting. The Jack Russell resembles the fox terrier and, like it, has two varieties, one with a short smooth coat, the other—the Parson Jack Russell terrier—wirehaired. It is a smaller dog than the fox terrier, however, weighing 9 to 18 lb (4 to 8 kg) and standing about 10 to 15 in. (25 to 38 cm) at the shoulder. The color is white with reddish brown, black, or tan markings. The Jack Russell has dark, almond-shaped eyes and V-shaped ears that are carried forward. The terrier is not a recognized American Kennel Club breed and less emphasis has been placed on its conforming to a breed standard than on its abilities as a hunting and companion dog. The breed can become aggressive and destructive if not given the attention and exercise required by a dog bred for hunting.

Hitchcock, Henry-Russell, 1903-87, American architectural historian, b. Boston. Educated at Harvard, Hitchcock taught at Smith College and New York Univ. His writings, which helped to define modern architecture stylistically during the course of its development, are among the foremost in the field. Hitchcock's writings include The International Style: Architecture since 1922 (with Philip Cortelyou Johnson, 1932), The Architecture of H. H. Richardson and His Times (1936), In the Nature of Materials (1942), and Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (1958).

Hertzsprung-Russell diagram [for Ejnar Hertzsprung and H. N. Russell], graph showing the luminosity of a star as a function of its surface temperature. The luminosity, or absolute magnitude, increases upwards on the vertical axis; the temperature (or some temperature-dependent characteristic such as spectral class or color) decreases to the right on the horizontal axis. It is found that the majority of stars lie on a diagonal band that extends from hot stars of high luminosity in the upper left corner to cool stars of low luminosity in the lower right corner. This band is called the main sequence. Stars called white dwarfs lie sparsely scattered in the lower left corner. The giant stars—stars of great luminosity and size (see red giant)—form a thick, approximately horizontal band that joins the main sequence near the middle of the diagonal band. Above the giant stars, there is another sparse horizontal band consisting of the supergiant stars. The stars in the lower right corner of the main sequence are frequently called red dwarfs, and the stars between the main sequence and the giant branch are called subgiants. The significance of the H-R diagram is that stars are concentrated in certain distinct regions instead of being distributed at random. This regularity is an indication that definite laws govern stellar structure and stellar evolution. In population I regions (see stellar populations) like the spiral arms of galaxies or open star clusters, the stars fall almost exclusively on the main sequence. In population II regions like the nuclei of galaxies and globular clusters, the stars are older and have evolved significantly. The most luminous stars have evolved furthest, and an H-R diagram of such a region will show the upper end of the main sequence depopulated and will show a well-developed giant branch. In such a diagram it appears that the main sequence has "burned down" from the top like a candle. Thus, the point at which the main sequence terminates and the giant branch begins is an indication of the age of a star cluster. A modified H-R diagram of the stars in a cluster of unknown distance can be used to determine the absolute magnitude, or luminosity, of the stars. Since the apparent magnitude of a star of given absolute magnitude depends only on the star's distance, the observed apparent magnitude of the stars can be used to calculate the distance to the cluster.

Grace, William Russell, 1832-1904, American financier, b. Queenstown, Ireland. He was in business in England and Peru before establishing (1865) W. R. Grace & Company in New York City. After Peru's defeat by Chile, Grace was among those who underwrote the Peruvian national debt, in return for extensive business concessions. The Grace firm established branches in many Latin American countries after 1895 and developed steamship operations. In 1880, Grace became the first Roman Catholic mayor of New York City and in two reform administrations opposed Tammany.

Fish, Carl Russell, 1876-1932, American historian, b. Central Falls, R.I. From 1900 to his death he taught history at the Univ. of Wisconsin. Fish considered the Univ. of Wisconsin the "most democratic institution in America," and he was extremely popular there among both students and colleagues. He wrote The Civil Service and the Patronage (1904, repr. 1963); The Development of American Nationality (1913, rev. ed. 1940), a useful and popular textbook; American Diplomacy (1915, 5th ed. 1929); The Path of Empire ("Chronicles of America" series, 1919); The Rise of the Common Man, 1830-1850 ("History of American Life" Vol. VI, 1927, repr. 1971); and The American Civil War: An Interpretation (ed. by William E. Smith, 1937).

Eggan, Fred Russell, 1906-91, American anthropologist, b. Seattle, grad. Univ. of Chicago (Ph.B., 1927; A.M., 1928; Ph.D., 1933). A member of the faculty of the Univ. of Chicago from 1935, he served twice as chairman of school's anthropology department (1948-52; 1961-63). Eggan devoted his career to reconciling American historical ethnology with the British structural-functional method, and to applying his synthetic approach to the study of Native American kinship and social systems. He also pioneered the study of culture change in the Philippines. Among his writings are Social Organization of the Western Pueblos (1950) and The American Indian (1966).

Conwell, Russell Herman, 1843-1925, American Baptist minister and lecturer, b. Worthington, Mass. After practicing law, he was ordained (1879) and went to Philadelphia as a minister. He was founder and first president of Temple Univ., which opened as a college for working people in 1884. For over 60 years Conwell was active as a lecturer.

Browder, Earl Russell, 1891-1973, American Communist, b. Wichita, Kans. He became converted to socialism as a boy, and after imprisonment (1917-18, 1919-20) for opposing the draft he joined the Communist party. Following his return from a trip to China for the party, he was secretary-general of the party (1930-44) and president of the Communist political association (1944-45), which briefly replaced the party. He was the Communist party's candidate for President (1936,1940) and editor in chief of the Daily Worker (1944-45). In 1940 he was convicted of passport fraud, and he was imprisoned in 1941, but he was freed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1942. During World War II he advocated greater cooperation between the Soviet Union and the West. When the war ended, this policy was repudiated by the leaders of the USSR and resulted in his removal from all party offices (1945) and from the party (1946). Among his works are Communism in the United States (1935), What Is Communism? (1936), The People's Front (1938), War or Peace with Russia? (1947), and Marx and America (1958).

Briggs, Le Baron Russell, 1855-1934, American educator, b. Salem, Mass., grad. Harvard (B.A., 1875; M.A., 1882). As a teacher at Harvard he developed, with Barrett Wendell, a prescribed and widely imitated freshman English course. A number of able contemporary writers were influenced by his graduate course in creative writing. He became professor of English in 1890 and of rhetoric and oratory in 1904. In 1891 he was appointed dean of the college and from 1903 to 1923 served as president of Radcliffe. His works include School, College, and Character (1901), Routine and Ideals (1904), Girls and Education (1911), and Men, Women, and Colleges (1925).

Bedford, William Russell, 5th earl and 1st duke of: see Russell, family.

Bedford, John Russell, 4th duke of: see Russell, family.

Bedford, John Russell, 1st earl of: see Russell, family.

Bedford, John Robert Russell, 13th duke of: see Russell, family.

Bedford, Francis Russell, 5th duke of: see Russell, family.

Bedford, Francis Russell, 4th earl of: see Russell, family.

Bedford, Francis Russell, 2d earl of: see Russell, family.

Alger, Russell Alexander, 1836-1907, U.S. secretary of war (1897-99), b. near Medina, Ohio. After moving to Michigan he engaged in the lumber business, in which he made a fortune. During the Civil War he rose from the ranks to be a brevet major general. Alger was (1885-86) a popular governor of Michigan and was prominent in Republican national affairs. He was made secretary of war by President McKinley, but the inefficiency of his department, which was highly disorganized when he took charge, and his appointment of William R. Shafter as leader of the Cuban expedition were bitterly criticized, and he resigned. He was later (1902-7) U.S. senator from Michigan.

(born Aug. 4, 1816, Shenandoah, N.Y., U.S.—died July 22, 1906, Lawrence Beach, N.Y.) U.S. financier. He worked as an errand boy, studying arithmetic and bookkeeping in his spare time, and in 1839 he started a wholesale grocery business, which earned him enough money to start a Hudson River shipping trade. He served in Congress (1853–57). Sage invested successfully in the La Crosse Railroad in Wisconsin, and he eventually acquired an interest in more than 40 railroads, serving as director or president of 20. He helped organize the Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph Co. In 1872 he originated stock-market puts and calls (options to buy or sell a set amount of stock at a set price and within a given time limit), but he stopped dealing in them after losing $7 million in the panic of 1884. His wife, Margaret Olivia Sage, established the Russell Sage Foundation and Russell Sage College (Troy, N.Y.) after his death.

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orig. Helen Louise Leonard

(born Dec. 4, 1861, Clinton, Iowa, U.S.—died June 6, 1922, Pittsburgh, Pa.) U.S. singer and actress. She made her stage debut while still in her teens. She achieved stardom in Grand Mogul (1881) and later won acclaim in The Grand Duchess (1890). From 1899 to 1904 she appeared in England and the U.S. with a burlesque company. Representing the feminine ideal of her generation, she was as famous for her flamboyant personal life as for her hourglass figure, her beauty, and her voice. After her fourth marriage in 1912, she wrote a syndicated column on health, beauty, and love and lectured on these topics before vaudeville audiences.

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(born Feb. 16, 1852, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.—died Oct. 31, 1916, Pampa, Texas) U.S. religious leader who founded the International Bible Students Association, the forerunner of the Jehovah's Witnesses. He was raised in the Congregational church but rejected its teachings, unable to reconcile God's mercy with the idea of hell. Influenced by the Adventists, he adopted a doctrine of millennialism. He founded the International Bible Students Association in 1872 (renamed Jehovah's Witnesses in 1931) and taught that the final days would come in 1914 and that Christ's kingdom on earth would begin after a war between capitalism and socialism. In 1884 he founded the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, today one of the world's largest publishers. His books, pamphlets, and periodicals were widely circulated, and he won many converts despite the apparent failure of his apocalyptic prediction.

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in full William Felton Russell

(born Feb. 12, 1934, Monroe, La., U.S.) U.S. basketball player. The 6-ft 10-in. (2.08-m) centre led the University of San Francisco to two NCAA championships (1955–56). Playing for the Boston Celtics (1956–69), Russell led his team to 11 NBA championships in 13 seasons—the last 2 as coach, having become in 1967 the first black coach of a major professional sports team. Russell's career mark for rebounds (21,620) is second only to that of his great rival Wilt Chamberlain, and he is regarded as one of the finest defensive centres of all time. He was voted most valuable player in the NBA five times. He later coached the Seattle SuperSonics (1973–77) and the Sacramento Kings (1987–88).

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(born May 18, 1872, Trelleck, Monmouthshire, Eng.—died Feb. 2, 1970, near Penrhyndeudraeth, Merioneth, Wales) British logician and philosopher. He is best known for his work in mathematical logic and for his advocacy on behalf of a variety of social and political causes, especially pacifism and nuclear disarmament. He was born into the British nobility as the grandson of Earl Russell, who was twice prime minister of Britain in the mid-19th century. He studied mathematics and philosophy at Cambridge University, where he came under the influence of the idealist philosopher J.M.E. McTaggart, though he soon rejected idealism in favour of an extreme Platonic realism. In an early paper, “On Denoting” (1905), he solved a notorious puzzle in the philosophy of language by showing how phrases such as “The present king of France,” which have no referents, function logically as general statements rather than as proper names. Russell later regarded this discovery, which came to be known as the “theory of descriptions,” as one of his most important contributions to philosophy. In The Principles of Mathematics (1903) and the epochal Principia Mathematica (3 vol., 1910–13), which he wrote with Alfred North Whitehead, he sought to demonstrate that the whole of mathematics derives from logic. For his pacifism in World War I he lost his lectureship at Cambridge and was later imprisoned. (He would abandon pacifism in 1939 in the face of Nazi aggression.) Russell's best-developed metaphysical doctrine, logical atomism, strongly influenced the school of logical positivism. His later philosophical works include The Analysis of Mind (1921), The Analysis of Matter (1927), and Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits (1948). His A History of Western Philosophy (1945), which he wrote for a popular audience, became a best-seller and was for many years the main source of his income. Among his many works on social and political topics are Roads to Freedom (1918); The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism (1920), a scathing critique of Soviet communism; On Education (1926); and Marriage and Morals (1929). In part because of the controversial views he espoused in the latter work, he was prevented from accepting a teaching position at the City College of New York in 1940. After World War II he became a leader in the worldwide campaign for nuclear disarmament, serving as first president of the international Pugwash Conferences on nuclear weapons and world security and of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. In 1961, at the age of 89, he was imprisoned for a second time for inciting civil disobedience. He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1950.

Learn more about Russell, Bertrand (Arthur William), 3rd Earl Russell with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Aug. 4, 1816, Shenandoah, N.Y., U.S.—died July 22, 1906, Lawrence Beach, N.Y.) U.S. financier. He worked as an errand boy, studying arithmetic and bookkeeping in his spare time, and in 1839 he started a wholesale grocery business, which earned him enough money to start a Hudson River shipping trade. He served in Congress (1853–57). Sage invested successfully in the La Crosse Railroad in Wisconsin, and he eventually acquired an interest in more than 40 railroads, serving as director or president of 20. He helped organize the Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph Co. In 1872 he originated stock-market puts and calls (options to buy or sell a set amount of stock at a set price and within a given time limit), but he stopped dealing in them after losing $7 million in the panic of 1884. His wife, Margaret Olivia Sage, established the Russell Sage Foundation and Russell Sage College (Troy, N.Y.) after his death.

Learn more about Sage, Russell with a free trial on Britannica.com.

National Monument, northeastern Alabama, U.S. Located south of the Alabama-Tennessee border, the monument constitutes part of a cavern that was discovered circa 1953. The cave is about 210 ft (64 m) long, 107 ft (33 m) wide, and 26 ft (8 m) high. It contains an almost continuous record of human habitation dating to at least 7000 BC. The national monument was established in 1961.

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(born Feb. 22, 1819, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.—died Aug. 12, 1891, Cambridge) U.S. poet, critic, editor, and diplomat. He received a law degree from Harvard but chose not to practice. In the 1840s he wrote extensively against slavery, including the Biglow Papers (1848), satirical verses in Yankee dialect. His other most important works are The Vision of Sir Launfal (1848), a long poem on the brotherhood of mankind; and A Fable for Critics (1848), a witty evaluation of contemporary authors. After his wife's death in 1853, he wrote mainly essays on literature, history, and politics. A highly influential man of letters in his day, he taught at Harvard, edited The Atlantic Monthly and The North American Review, and served as minister to Spain and ambassador to Britain.

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orig. Helen Louise Leonard

(born Dec. 4, 1861, Clinton, Iowa, U.S.—died June 6, 1922, Pittsburgh, Pa.) U.S. singer and actress. She made her stage debut while still in her teens. She achieved stardom in Grand Mogul (1881) and later won acclaim in The Grand Duchess (1890). From 1899 to 1904 she appeared in England and the U.S. with a burlesque company. Representing the feminine ideal of her generation, she was as famous for her flamboyant personal life as for her hourglass figure, her beauty, and her voice. After her fourth marriage in 1912, she wrote a syndicated column on health, beauty, and love and lectured on these topics before vaudeville audiences.

Learn more about Russell, Lillian with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Feb. 22, 1819, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.—died Aug. 12, 1891, Cambridge) U.S. poet, critic, editor, and diplomat. He received a law degree from Harvard but chose not to practice. In the 1840s he wrote extensively against slavery, including the Biglow Papers (1848), satirical verses in Yankee dialect. His other most important works are The Vision of Sir Launfal (1848), a long poem on the brotherhood of mankind; and A Fable for Critics (1848), a witty evaluation of contemporary authors. After his wife's death in 1853, he wrote mainly essays on literature, history, and politics. A highly influential man of letters in his day, he taught at Harvard, edited The Atlantic Monthly and The North American Review, and served as minister to Spain and ambassador to Britain.

Learn more about Lowell, James Russell with a free trial on Britannica.com.

or H-R diagram

Graph in which the absolute magnitudes of stars are plotted against their colours (a measure of their temperatures). Of great importance to theories of stellar evolution, it evolved from charts begun independently in 1911 by the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung (1873–1967) and the U.S. astronomer Henry Norris Russell (1877–1957). On the diagram, stars are ranked from bottom to top in order of increasing brightness and from right to left by increasing temperature. Stars tend to cluster in certain parts of the diagram, especially along a diagonal line, called the main sequence, which is the locus of hydrogen-burning stars of different masses.

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(born Sept. 14, 1916, Bolton, Lancashire, Eng.) British-born U.S. drama critic and translator. He was a stage director in several European cities (1948–51); in Munich, after working with Bertolt Brecht on a production of the playwright's Mother Courage, he translated Brecht's plays into English. His reporting on European theatre for several magazines helped introduce many European playwrights to the U.S. He wrote numerous critical works, including Life of the Drama (1964), and taught at Columbia University (1953–69) and elsewhere.

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(born May 20, 1891, Wichita, Kan., U.S.—died June 27, 1973, Princeton, N.J.) U.S. Communist Party leader (1930–44). He was imprisoned in 1919–20 for his opposition to U.S. participation in World War I. In 1921 he joined the U.S. Communist Party; he served as the party's general secretary from 1930 to 1944 and was its presidential candidate in 1936 and 1940. In 1944 he was removed from his position for declaring that capitalism and socialism could coexist, and in 1946 he was expelled from the party.

Learn more about Browder, Earl (Russell) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Feb. 16, 1852, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.—died Oct. 31, 1916, Pampa, Texas) U.S. religious leader who founded the International Bible Students Association, the forerunner of the Jehovah's Witnesses. He was raised in the Congregational church but rejected its teachings, unable to reconcile God's mercy with the idea of hell. Influenced by the Adventists, he adopted a doctrine of millennialism. He founded the International Bible Students Association in 1872 (renamed Jehovah's Witnesses in 1931) and taught that the final days would come in 1914 and that Christ's kingdom on earth would begin after a war between capitalism and socialism. In 1884 he founded the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, today one of the world's largest publishers. His books, pamphlets, and periodicals were widely circulated, and he won many converts despite the apparent failure of his apocalyptic prediction.

Learn more about Russell, Charles Taze with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born May 20, 1891, Wichita, Kan., U.S.—died June 27, 1973, Princeton, N.J.) U.S. Communist Party leader (1930–44). He was imprisoned in 1919–20 for his opposition to U.S. participation in World War I. In 1921 he joined the U.S. Communist Party; he served as the party's general secretary from 1930 to 1944 and was its presidential candidate in 1936 and 1940. In 1944 he was removed from his position for declaring that capitalism and socialism could coexist, and in 1946 he was expelled from the party.

Learn more about Browder, Earl (Russell) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

in full William Felton Russell

(born Feb. 12, 1934, Monroe, La., U.S.) U.S. basketball player. The 6-ft 10-in. (2.08-m) centre led the University of San Francisco to two NCAA championships (1955–56). Playing for the Boston Celtics (1956–69), Russell led his team to 11 NBA championships in 13 seasons—the last 2 as coach, having become in 1967 the first black coach of a major professional sports team. Russell's career mark for rebounds (21,620) is second only to that of his great rival Wilt Chamberlain, and he is regarded as one of the finest defensive centres of all time. He was voted most valuable player in the NBA five times. He later coached the Seattle SuperSonics (1973–77) and the Sacramento Kings (1987–88).

Learn more about Russell, Bill with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Sept. 14, 1916, Bolton, Lancashire, Eng.) British-born U.S. drama critic and translator. He was a stage director in several European cities (1948–51); in Munich, after working with Bertolt Brecht on a production of the playwright's Mother Courage, he translated Brecht's plays into English. His reporting on European theatre for several magazines helped introduce many European playwrights to the U.S. He wrote numerous critical works, including Life of the Drama (1964), and taught at Columbia University (1953–69) and elsewhere.

Learn more about Bentley, Eric (Russell) with a free trial on Britannica.com.