Yunus, Muhammad, 1940-, Bangladeshi economist and banker, b. Chittagong (then in British India), grad. Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville, Tenn. (Ph.D. 1971). Yunus, who was teaching economics in the United States after receiving his doctorate, returned to his homeland when it won its independence from Pakistan in 1972, and became an economics professor at Chittagong Univ. In 1976 he began offering small loans, using his own money, to poor village women who could not qualify for conventional bank loans, creating what has become known as microcredit or microfinance. His efforts, which expanded in the late 1970s and early 1980s, led to the establishment of the Grameen Bank [Bengali,=rural or village] in 1983. Bankrolled in part by loans and grants in the 1980s and 90s, the Grameen Bank has since become self-supporting. The concept of microfinance has spread to many developing countries, allowing some of the world's most improverished people the means to improve their lives through their own initiative; the borrowers continue to be largely women. Yunus and the Grameen Bank were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2006 for their work to create economic and social development from below.

Yahya Khan, Agha Muhammad, 1917-80, Pakistani general and president (1969-71). He fought with the British in World War II, and rose through the Pakistan army following independence, becoming chief of the general staff (1957-62) and helping to bring General Ayub Khan to power. Yahya Khan performed well during the 1965 war with India, and in 1966 became commander in chief of the army. Economic problems and disputes between East and West Pakistan led to Ayub Khan's resignation and his replacement as president by Yahya Khan in 1969. The imposition of martial law failed to curb domestic unrest, and civil war between East and West Pakistan broke out in 1971. The defeat of Pakistan's army and the ultimate success of Bangladesh (see India-Pakistan Wars) caused him to resign in late 1971. He was succeeded by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.

Tughluq, Muhammad: see Delhi Sultanate.

Nimeiry, Muhammad Gaafur al-, 1930-, Sudanese army officer and politician. Early active in the Sudanese nationalist movement, he was temporarily expelled from high school (1948) after leading a student strike against British rule. He attended military college and served in the army, where he rose to the rank of colonel. In 1969 he led a group of leftist army officers in a coup against the civilian government of Muhammad Ahmad Mahgoub. Nimeiry established himself as president and later (1972) as prime minister. In 1972, Nimeiry signed a truce with secessionist forces in S Sudan, thus ending some 17 years of civil war. Although twice reelected, his popularity waned as he supported Egyptian President Sadat's efforts for peace with Israel, opposed external alliances, and tried to impose strict Islamic law. In 1985, while abroad, he was deposed.

Mussadegh, Muhammad, 1880-1967, Iranian political leader, prime minister of Iran (1951-53). He held a variety of government posts (1914-25) but retired to private life in protest against the shah's assumption of dictatorial powers in 1925. He returned to government (1944) as a member of parliament and quickly established himself as an opponent of foreign interference in Iranian affairs. He successfully fought Soviet attempts to exploit the oil fields of N Iran and led the movement to nationalize the British-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. He became immensely popular, and after parliament passed his oil nationalization act (1951), the shah was forced to appoint him prime minister. Mussadegh's refusal to negotiate a settlement with the British alienated the shah and members of Iran's ruling class. A political crisis developed, and in Aug., 1953, Mussadegh's government was overthrown by the shah and his followers. After serving three years in prison, Mussadegh spent the rest of his life under house arrest.

Muhammad, Elijah, 1897-1975, American black-nationalist and religious leader, b. near Sandersville, Ga. Originally named Elijah Poole, he left home at 16 and worked at various jobs. In 1923 he settled in Detroit and became an automobile assembly-line worker. In 1931 he became a follower of Wali Farad, or W. D. Fard, who had established a Temple of Islam in Detroit. When Farad disappeared in 1934, Poole (now renamed Muhammad) assumed leadership of the movement that was to become known as the Black Muslims. He was imprisoned during World War II for encouraging resistance to the draft. Muhammad called himself the "Messenger of Allah" and preached that the only salvation for black people in the United States lay in withdrawal into an autonomous state. He retained almost autocratic control over his movement. He greatly influenced Malcolm X, although Malcolm later left the Black Muslims.

Muhammad, Benjamin Franklin Chavis, 1948-, African-American civil-rights and religious leader, b. Oxford, N.C., as Benjamin Franklin Chavis, Jr. An activist from boyhood, he was a youth coordinator for the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. In the late 1970s, Chavis was one of ten men wrongly imprisoned (1976-80) after leading a Wilmington, N.C., demonstration. A minister in the United Church of Christ from 1980, he headed (1985-93) that church's Commission for Racial Justice before his 1993 appointment as director of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Controversy surrounding his leadership of the NAACP and his handling of sexual harassment and discrimination charges against him led to his dismissal the following year. In 1994-95 he was national director for the Million Man March in Washington (Oct., 1995). In 1997 he announced himself a member of the Nation of Islam (see Black Muslims) and began to preach as a Muslim minister; he changed his surname from Chavis to Muhammad. In 2001 he became president of the Hip-Hop Summit Action Network,

Muhammad of Ghor, d. 1206, Afghan conqueror of N India. A brother of the sultan of Ghor, he was made governor of Ghazni in 1173 and from there launched a series of invasions of India. By 1186 he had conquered the Muslim principalities in the Punjab. He was severely defeated by the Rajputs under Prithvi Raj in 1191, but the following year he routed their army, and Delhi was captured. Muhammad's generals then overran Bihar and Bengal. He succeeded his brother as sultan in 1202 but was murdered in 1206. After his death his empire in N India fell apart and passed to his generals, one of whom founded the Delhi Sultanate.

Muhammad XI, d. 1538, last sultan of Granada in Spain (1482-92); also called Boabdil by the Spanish. He seized the throne from his father and thus plunged Granada into civil war at the time the Castilians were beginning their attack on the kingdom. As the Christians overran western Granada, Muhammad secretly promised (1487) them that he would surrender the city of Granada in return for some cities held by the rival Granadian party. However, he repudiated the agreement, and in Apr., 1491, the Castilians laid siege to Granada. After valiant resistance, Muhammad surrendered in Jan., 1492, and fled to Morocco. His surrender marked the end of Moorish rule in Spain, and he is the subject of a number of romantic legends.

Muhammad VI or Mehmet VI, 1861-1926, last Ottoman sultan (1918-22), brother and successor of Muhammad V. He became sultan of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) near the end of World War I and soon capitulated to the Allies, who occupied Constantinople and sought to rule through him what remained of Turkey. He consented to the extremely harsh peace terms of the Allies (see Sèvres, Treaty of). In the meantime Kemal Atatürk gained control over Anatolia; after his victory over the Greeks he turned on Muhammad, who was deposed in 1922. The sultanate was abolished and the republic of Turkey established. Muhammad fled and died in exile. After his flight he was deposed as caliph, in which capacity he was succeeded by his cousin, Abd al-Majid. In 1924 the caliphate was abolished and all members of the Ottoman house were exiled. Muhammad VI died at San Remo, Italy.

Muhammad VI, 1963-, king of Morocco (1999-), formerly Muhammad ben Al-Hassan, crown prince Sidi Muhammad. He studied at Muhammad V Univ., Rabat, where he received bachelor's (1985) and master's (1988) degrees in law, and at the Univ. of Nice, France, where he obtained (1993) his doctorate in law. In the 1990s, as the health of his father King Hassan II declined, the crown price assumed a greater role in the government. In 1994 he was promoted to general and became coordinator of the Royal Armed Forces, and in 1998 he initiated a wide-ranging antipoverty program. When Hassan died in 1999, the crown price succeeded him as Muhammad VI. He has worked toward various social and economic improvements and has established a reputation as a generally moderate monarch.

Muhammad V or Mehmet V, 1844-1918, Ottoman sultan (1909-18). He succeeded to the throne of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) when the liberal Young Turk revolution of 1909 deposed his brother, Abd al-Hamid II. He exercised no actual power under the new constitution, and the administration was dominated by Enver Pasha. During Muhammad's reign Turkey lost most of its remaining European possessions in the Balkan Wars (1912-13) and lost Tripoli to Italy in 1911-12. Germany gained increasing influence over Turkish affairs, resuming the construction of the Baghdad Railway in 1911. Muhammad sided with the Central Powers in World War I. He died shortly before the Turkish surrender and was succeeded by his brother, Muhammad VI.

Muhammad V (Sidi Muhammad ibn Youssef), 1910-61, king of Morocco (1957-61). He succeeded his father, Moulay Youssef, as sultan in 1927. An ardent nationalist, he was deposed and exiled (1953) by the French. After strong nationalist pressure, the French brought (1955) Muhammad from exile in Madagascar to France, where he was once again recognized as sultan. He obtained (1956) full recognition of Moroccan sovereignty from France and Spain and, in 1957, he took the title of king of Morocco. He was succeeded (1961) by his son, Moulay Hassan, who became Hassan II.

Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlevi, 1919-80, shah of Iran (1941-79). Educated in Switzerland, he returned (1935) to Iran to attend the military academy in Tehran. He ascended the throne in 1941 after his father, Reza Shah Pahlevi, was suspected of collaboration with the Germans and was deposed by British and Soviet troops. He narrowly escaped assassination (1949) by a member of the leftist Tudeh party, and in 1953 he briefly fled the country after a clash with the supporters of Muhammad Mussadegh. A moderate, the shah launched (1963) a reform program with U.S. assistance called the "White Revolution," which included land redistribution among citizens, extensive construction, the promotion of literacy, and the emancipation of women. However in the process, the grassroots population became increasingly isolated as wealth, emanating from the oil industry, was unequally distributed among Iranians. The shah faced further criticism from the internal religious clergy, who disfavored his pro-Western policies. As popular discontent grew, particularly in the early 1970s, the shah became more repressive, calling upon his brutal secret police (SAVAK) to put down domestic strife. Massive rioting erupted in Iran, and widespread support for the exiled religious leader Ruhollah Khomeini grew by 1978. On Jan. 16, 1979, Shah Pahlevi fled the country; Khomeini returned to Iran and took control. When in Oct., 1979, Iranian extremists stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran, they demanded the shah in return for the American hostages being held in the embassy. The shah, however, remained abroad; he died in Egypt in 1980.

Muhammad IV or Mehmet IV, 1641-92, Ottoman sultan (1648-87). He was proclaimed sultan of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) by the corps of Janissaries after the deposition and murder of his father, Sultan Ibrahim. Disorder and corruption continued until the Köprülü family obtained (1656) the office of grand vizier (chief executive officer) and restored order. However, the empire suffered severe setbacks. Algiers freed itself (1669) from Ottoman suzerainty. In 1683 the Turks, in alliance with the Hungarian Thököly, besieged Vienna but were repulsed by King John III of Poland. Turkish weakness being apparent, a Holy League was formed to carry the war into Ottoman territory. After the Turkish defeat (1687) at Mohacs by Charles V of Lorraine, Muhammad was deposed. His brother, Sulayman II, succeeded him.

Muhammad III or Mehmet III, 1567-1603, Ottoman sultan (1595-1603), son and successor of Murad III to the throne of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). Muhammad, who was a provisional governor under his father, was the last sultan to have any experience in public affairs before ascending the throne. He fought inconclusively in Hungary and in his last year lost Tabriz to Shah Abbas I of Persia. His son Ahmed I succeeded him.

Muhammad II or Mehmet II (Muhammad the Conqueror), 1429-81, Ottoman sultan (1451-81), son and successor of Murad II. He is considered the true founder of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). He completed the conquest of the Byzantine Empire by successfully storming (1453) Constantinople after a 50-day siege, for which he constructed the largest cannons the world had yet known. Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI fell in its defense. Muhammad moved his capital from Adrianople to Constantinople and restored the greatness of that city by settling there the populations of other conquered towns. To Greek and Armenian citizens of Constantinople he granted the privileges that they were to enjoy throughout Ottoman rule, including the freedom to practice Orthodox Eastern Christianity. The Church of Hagia Sophia became a mosque. Muhammad then conquered the Balkan Peninsula, taking Greece, Bosnia, and several Venetian possessions in the Aegean islands. The khan of Crimea became his ally and vassal. However, his further advance was checked at Belgrade by John Hunyadi, in Albania by Scanderbeg until 1478, and in Rhodes by the Knights Hospitalers under Aubusson. In Asia, Muhammad annexed the empire of Trebizond, ended most independent Turkish dynasties, and subdued the emirate of Karamania, putting to death its ruling family, who were Seljuk Turks. In 1480 he captured Otranto, in Italy, but the expedition had no results. Muhammad was a patron of learning and an accomplished linguist as well as a great commander. His son, Beyazid II, succeeded him. For a contemporary account of Muhammad II, see Kritoboulos, A History of Mehmed the Conqueror (tr. 1954).

Muhammad I or Mehmet I (Muhammad the Restorer), 1389?-1421, Ottoman sultan (1413-21), son of Beyazid I. By defeating his brothers he reunited most of his father's empire. He consolidated his authority and thus renewed Ottoman power. His son, Murad II, succeeded him.

Muhammad Ali, 1769?-1849, pasha of Egypt after 1805. He was a common soldier who rose to leadership by his military skill and political acumen. In 1799 he commanded a Turkish army in an unsuccessful attempt to drive Napoleon from Egypt. As pasha he was virtually independent of his nominal overlord, the Ottoman sultan. He modernized his armed forces and administration, created schools, and began many public works, particularly irrigation projects. The cost of these reforms bore heavily on the peasants and brought them few benefits. In 1811 he exterminated the leaders of the Mamluks, who had ruled Egypt almost uninterruptedly since 1250. With his son, Ibrahim Pasha, Muhammad Ali conducted successful campaigns in Arabia against the Wahhabis. In 1820 he sent armies to conquer Sudan. He scored great successes fighting for the Ottoman sultan in Greece until the British, French, and Russians combined to defeat his fleet at Navarino in 1827. The sultan, Mahmud II, to win his intervention in the Greek revolt, had promised to make him governor of Syria. When the sultan refused to hand over the province, Muhammad Ali invaded Syria with great success. In 1839 he attacked his overlord in Asia Minor, but was forced to desist when he lost the support of France and was threatened by united European opposition. In a compromise arrangement the Ottoman sultan made the governorship of Egypt hereditary in Muhammad Ali's line. He retired from office in 1848. Muhammad Ali is credited for his many domestic reforms, which hastened the foundations for an independent Egypt.

Muhammad Ali, 1872-1925, shah of Persia (1906-9), son of Muzaffar ad-Din Shah, of the Qajar dynasty. Muhammad Ali, who was an opponent of constitutional government, began to rule at a critical period just after the constitution of 1906 had been granted. His struggle with the nationalists led to the bombing of the newly established parliament. He called in the aid of the Russians, who organized a Cossack brigade for him. His attempt to overthrow the constitutional government brought on two short civil wars (1908-9). Muhammad Ali was finally forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Ahmad Mirza. Later he attempted with Russian help to regain his throne, but he failed and afterward lived in exile in Russia.

Muhammad Ahmad: see Mahdi.

Muhammad Abduh 1849-1905, Egyptian Muslim religious reformer. His encounter in 1872 with Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani, in the Cairo mosque-university of al-Azhar, led to his transition from asceticism to an activism seeking the renaissance of Islam and the liberation of the Muslims from colonialism. Abduh advocated the reform of Islam by bringing it back to its pristine state, and casting off what he viewed as its contemporary decadence and division. His views were faced by opposition from the established political and religious order, but were later embraced by Arab nationalism after World War I.

Muhammad [Arab.,=praised], 570?-632, the name of the Prophet of Islam, one of the great figures of history, b. Mecca.

Early Life

Muhammad was the son of Abdallah ibn Abd al-Muttalib and his wife Amina, both of the Hashim clan of the dominant Kuraish (Quraysh) tribal federation. Muhammad was orphaned soon after birth, and was brought up by his uncle Abu Talib. When he was 24, he married Khadija, a wealthy widow much his senior; he had no other wife in Khadija's lifetime. Khadija's daughter Fatima was the only child of Muhammad to have issue. His position in the community was that of a wealthy merchant.

Call to Prophecy

When he was 40, Muhammad felt himself selected by God to be the Arab prophet of true religion. The Arabs, unlike other nations, had hitherto had no prophet. In the cave of Mt. Hira, N of Mecca, he had a vision in which he was commanded to preach. Thereafter throughout his life he continued to have revelations, many of which were collected and recorded in the Qur'an. His fundamental teachings were: there is one God; people must in all things submit to Him; in this world nations have been amply punished for rejecting God's prophets, and heaven and hell are waiting for the present generation; the world will come to an end with a great judgment. He included as religious duties frequent prayer and almsgiving, and he forbade usury.

Enemies and Converts

In his first years Muhammad made few converts but many enemies. His first converts were Khadija, Ali (who became the husband of Fatima), and Abu Bakr. From about 620, Mecca became actively hostile, since much of its revenues depended on its pagan shrine, the Kaaba, and an attack on the existing Arab religion was an attack on the prosperity of Mecca. While he was gaining only enemies at home, Muhammad's teaching was faring little better abroad; only at Yathrib did it make any headway, and on Yathrib depended the future of Islam. In the summer of 622 Muhammad fled from Mecca as an attempt was being prepared to murder him, and he escaped in the night from the city and made his way to Yathrib. From this event, the flight, or Hegira, of the Prophet (622), the Islamic calendar begins.

Muhammad spent the rest of his life at Yathrib, henceforth called Medina, the City of the Prophet. At Medina he built his model theocratic state and from there ruled his rapidly growing empire. Muhammad's lawgiving at Medina is at least theoretically the law of Islam, and in its evolution over the next 10 years the history of the community at Medina is seen.

Medina lies on the caravan route N of Mecca, and the Kuraishites of Mecca could not endure the thought of their outlawed relative taking vengeance on his native city by plundering their caravans. A pitched battle between Muhammad's men and the Meccans occurred at Badr, and the victory of an inferior force from the poorer city over the men of Mecca gave Islam great prestige in SW Arabia. More than a year later the battle of Uhud was fought but with less fortunate results. By this time pagan Arabia had been converted, and the Prophet's missionaries, or legates, were active in the Eastern Empire, in Persia, and in Ethiopia.

As he believed firmly in his position as last of the prophets and as successor of Jesus, Muhammad seems at first to have expected that the Jews and Christians would welcome him and accept his revelations, but he was soon disappointed. Medina had a large Jewish population which controlled most of the wealth of the city, and they steadfastly refused to give their new ruler any kind of religious allegiance. Muhammad, after a long quarrel, appropriated much of their property, and his first actual conquest was the oasis of Khaibar, occupied by the Jews, in 628. The failure of several missions among the Christians made him distrustful of Christians as well as Jews.

His renown increased, and in 629 he made a pilgrimage to Mecca without interference. There he won valuable converts, including Amr and Khalid (who had fought him at Uhud). In 630 he marched against Mecca, which fell without a fight. Arabia was won. Muhammad's private life—the fact that he had nine wives—has received a vast, and perhaps disproportionate, amount of attention. His third wife, Aishah, was able and devoted; he died in her arms June 8, 632.

Legends and Veneration

Islam has enshrouded Muhammad's life with a mass of legends and traditions (contained in the Hadith). Islamic dogma stresses his exclusively human nature, while presenting him as infallible on matters of prophecy. Muhammad is still perceived as the ultimate subject of emulation. At a popular level, Muslims throughout the world venerate Muhammad by expressing their love and devotion to him through numerous poems, folk songs, and formulaic prayers invoking God's blessings. Many believe that he will intercede for the Muslim community on the day of judgment. His deeds and sayings are collected in the sunna. He is considered by most Muslims to have been sinless. Muhammad is probably the most common given name, with variations including the W African Mamadu and the Turkic Mehmet. He was known to medieval Christianity as Mahomet.

Mubarak, Muhammad Hosni, 1928-, president of Egypt (1981-). air force commander (1972-75) and vice president (1975-81), he became president after Anwar al-Sadat was assassinated on Oct. 6, 1981. Mubarak pledged to continue Sadat's policies, particularly the Camp David accords with Israel. He has, however, criticized many Israeli policies, and relations between the two nations were cooler in the late 1980s and much of the 1990s. Mubarak has sought to control Egypt's excessive population growth, combat economic problems, and contain trends toward fundamentalist Islam, but his authoritarian rule also has suppressed legitimate dissent and tolerated corruption. He was reelected in 1987, 1993, 1999, and 2005, the last time in a contested election marred by some irregularities and low turnout.

Mahgoub, Muhammad Ahmad, 1908-, Sudanese political leader. After twice serving as Sudan's minister of foreign affairs (1956-58, 1964-65), he was elected prime minister (1965) but was forced by the constituent assembly to resign in the following year. He was again elected prime minister in 1967, and in August of that year he hosted an Arab summit conference designed to coordinate strategy against Israel. Mahgoub's government was deposed (1969) in a coup led by Muhammad Gaafur al-Nimeiry and other left-wing officers. A writer, Mahgoub has published several volumes of poetry in Arabic.

Jinnah, Muhammad Ali, 1876-1948, founder of Pakistan, b. Karachi. After his admission to the bar in England, he returned to India to practice law. Early in his career he was a fervent supporter of the Indian National Congress and an advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity. Jinnah was a member of the legislative council of the viceroy from 1910 to 1919. He joined the Muslim League in 1913 and was elected its president in 1916 and 1920. He played a major role in negotiating the so-called Lucknow Pact (1916) between the League and the Congress, in which the latter conceded that Muslims should have a separate communal electorate to ensure them adequate legislative representation. Hindu-Muslim cooperation soon broke down, however, and the Congress reversed this position. Finally totally disillusioned with the Congress, Jinnah resigned from in 1930. From 1934 until his death he headed the Muslim League and guided its struggle for an independent Pakistan, a state that would include the predominantly Muslim areas of India. His support of the British during World War II increased his influence. Jinnah's claim that the Muslim League represented the Muslims of India was substantiated in 1946, when in the elections for the Indian constituent assembly, the League won all the seats assigned to the Muslim electorate. Jinnah's firm stand and widespread Hindu-Muslim riots forced the Congress to accept establishment of the separate state of Pakistan, and in Aug., 1947, India was partitioned. Jinnah was appointed the first governor-general of the dominion of Pakistan and, although dying of tuberculosis, was elected president of its constituent assembly.

Iqbal, Muhammad, 1877-1938, Indian Muslim poet, philosopher, and political leader. He studied at Government College, Lahore, Cambridge, and the Univ. of Munich, and then he taught philosophy at Government College and practiced law. He was elected (1927) to the Punjab provincial legislature and served (1930) as president of the Muslim League. An advocate initially of a pan-Islamic movement that would transcend national boundaries, he became a supporter of an independent homeland for India's Muslims and aligned himself with Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He is regarded by many as the spiritual founder of Pakistan, and the anniversary of his death (Apr. 21) is a national holiday. Iqbal was the foremost Muslim thinker of his period, and in his many volumes of poetry (written in Urdu and Persian) and essays, he urged a regeneration of Islam through the love of God and the active development of the self. He was a firm believer in freedom and the creative force that freedom can exert on men. He was knighted in 1922. His works include The Secrets of the Self (1915, tr. 1940), and Javid-nama (1934, tr. 1966).

Ibn al-Arabi or Ibn Arabi, Muhyi ad-Din Muhammad bin Ali al-Hatimi at-Tai, 1165-1240, a Muslim Sufi mystic b. in Murcia, Spain. As a child in Seville, Ibn al-Arabi had a formative religious experience in the aftermath of a vision. His pilgrimage to Mecca evolved into a two-year extended stay. His numerous travels, punctuated by his prolific writings, ended in Damascus, where he settled in 1230 and lived until his death. Considered one of the greatest of Islamic metaphysical thinkers, his works include al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya [Arab.,=the Meccan Revelations] in 37 volumes, begun in Mecca and containing a full exposition of his Sufi doctrine; Fusus al-Hikam, [Arab.,=Bezels of Wisdom], a summary of the teachings of 28 prophets, from Adam to Muhammad, dictated to Ibn al-Arabi by the Prophet of Islam in a dream; and Tarjuman al-Ashwaq, a love poem on which he later wrote an extensive commentary to explain its inner or hidden meaning. Ibn al-Arabi viewed the knowledge acquired through reason or through mystic states as inferior to that coming from God and acquired through a profound mystic training. God, in Ibn al-Arabi's thought, is represented as a quasi-unknowable existence free of all attributes. Ibn Arabi viewed human spiritual progress as a series of three journeys, away from, toward, and within the Divine. Not everyone could undertake these journeys, and then, only after completing a set of conditions, including silence, isolation, hunger, and sleep deprivation. Ibn al-Arabi's ideas have always been controversial among conservative Muslims. Many have considered him to be a heretic and, as recently as 1979, his al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya was banned in Egypt.

Dost Muhammad, 1793-1863, emir of Afghanistan. He and his family struggled to get the emirate for years before he finally succeeded in establishing himself in 1826. He waged continual war with the Sikhs, and trouble with the British, beginning in 1838, led to the first (1839-42) of the Afghan Wars. Defeated, he fled to India, but he later returned, and it was at least with British acquiescence that he regained the throne. Friendly relations were resumed and an agreement was reached in 1855, but Britain firmly refused to support him against the Persians. A strong, capable ruler, he helped to build Afghanistan and sought to play Russian interests against the British.

Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Ismail, al- (c.810-70), Arabic scholar, b. Bukhara. He traveled widely over Muslim regions and made an authoritative collection of the hadith, the traditional sayings of the Prophet. The al-Bukhari collection is regarded by many Sunni Muslims as the most reliable commentary and a law book second only to the Qur'an. The tomb of al-Bukhari, near Samarkand, is a noted place of pilgrimage.

Ayub Khan, Muhammad, 1907-74, military leader and president (1958-69) of Pakistan. He was commissioned in the British Indian army in 1928 and saw active service as a battalion commander in World War II. After 1947, when the state of Pakistan was created, he assumed command of military forces in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), and in 1951 he became commander in chief of the Pakistan army. He served (1954-56) as defense minister. In 1958, after a military coup, Ayub Khan became president; he was confirmed in office by a referendum (Feb., 1960). He launched a vigorous program of land reform and economic development and also inaugurated a system of what he called "basic democracies," tiers of local government councils that also served as electoral colleges. Martial law was lifted in 1962, and a new constitution that year gave the executive enormous powers. Ayub Khan was returned to office in 1965, defeating Fatimah Jinnah, sister of the founder of Pakistan. In the same year, he led the nation in a war with India, but the conflict was ended by the Tashkent Declaration of Jan., 1966. Despite economic growth, continuing economic and social inequalities, the disadvantaged position of East Pakistan, and limitation of civil liberties provoked increasing discontent with his regime. Early in 1969, Ayub Khan announced that he would not seek reelection in 1970, but unrest continued and in March he resigned power to a martial-law government headed by Gen. Muhammad Yahya Khan.

Ali, Muhammad, 1942-, American boxer, b. Louisville, Ky. Born Cassius Marcellus Clay, he was a 1960 Olympic gold medalist. Shortly after upsetting Sonny Liston in 1964 to become world heavyweight champion, he formalized his association with the Nation of Islam (see Black Muslims) and adopted the Muslim name Muhammad Ali.

Ali's flamboyant boxing style and outspoken stances on social issues made him a controversial figure during the turbulent 1960s and early 1970s. After beating Liston, he defended his title nine times, brashly proclaiming himself the "greatest of all time." In 1967 he refused induction into the armed services and became a symbol of resistance to the Vietnam War. The boxing establishment stripped Ali of his title and prevented him from fighting until the U.S. Supreme Court in 1971 upheld his draft appeal on religious grounds. Before retiring in 1981 Ali compiled a 56-5 record and became the only man to ever win the heavyweight crown three times. His fights with Joe Frazier and George Foreman were among boxing's biggest events.

In retirement, Ali has remained one of the most recognized of all world figures. The 1984 revelation that he suffered from Parkinson's disease renewed debate over the negative effects of boxing. His appearance at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, to light the Olympic flame, moved an international audience.

Al-Biruni or Al Beruni, Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad, b. 973, d. after 1050, Central Asian scientist. His earlier years were disturbed by political troubles, but after 1017 he was patronized by members of the Ghaznavid dynasty of Turkey. He traveled in Afghanistan and India, making astronomical and geographic observations. The largest part of his writings are on astronomy, astrology, and applied mathematics, but he also wrote on pharmacology, geography, philosophy, history, and other subjects. A taste for precise observation is shown in his determinations of latitudes and the densities of gemstones. His encyclopedic India (tr. 1888) and Chronology (tr. 1879) provide invaluable information about his time.

Ahmad bin Muhammad al-Barmaki al-Irbili ash-Shafii: see Ibn Khalikan.

Agha Muhammad Khan: see Aga Muhammad Khan.

Aga Muhammad Khan or Agha Muhammad Khan, 1742-97, shah of Persia, founder of the Qajar dynasty. He was emasculated by family enemies at the age of five. He was vigorous and able, but his cruelty is proverbial. In 1794, he captured and killed the last ruler of the Zand dynasty (see Iran) and ended his campaign with a wholesale massacre in Kerman. He became shah in 1796. Aga Muhammad resisted a Russian invasion and himself invaded (1795) Georgia. Hated by his subjects, he was finally assassinated. His nephew Fath Ali Shah succeeded him.

Abdullah, Sheikh Muhammad, 1905-82, nationalist leader in Kashmir, known as the Lion of Kashmir. He became active in political reform while a student at Lahore Univ. and was frequently imprisoned from 1931 for urging self-rule for Kashmir, a region now divided between Indian and Pakistan. He was active in the movement for India's independence and then became prime minister of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir when independence was achieved in 1947. After denouncing (1953) India's treatment of Kashmir, he was removed as prime minister and generally kept in preventive detention by the Indian government, although he was allowed to play a more active role in the early 1970s.

orig. Elijah Poole

(born Oct. 7, 1897, Sandersville, Ga., U.S.—died Feb. 25, 1975, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. black separatist and leader of the Nation of Islam. The son of sharecroppers and former slaves, he moved to Detroit in 1923. He joined the Nation of Islam and established its second temple, in Chicago; on the disappearance of its founder, Wallace D. Fard, in 1934, he became head of the movement. He was jailed for advocating draft evasion during World War II, but he continued to build membership of the Black Muslims in the postwar era. His relentless call for a separate nation for African Americans, whom he declared to be Allah's chosen people, prompted his most famous disciple, Malcolm X, to break with the group in 1964. He moderated his views in his later years.

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orig. Sīdī Muhsubdotammad ibn Yūsuf

(born Aug. 10, 1909, Fès, Mor.—died Feb. 26, 1961, Rabat) Sultan (1927–57) and king (1957–61) of Morocco. On his father's death, he was appointed sultan of French-ruled Morocco over his two brothers, largely because the French expected him to be more compliant. His nationalist feelings were subtly expressed throughout his rule. He protected Moroccan Jews from the Vichy occupation in World War II (1939–45). In 1953 the French exiled him for two years, but sustained nationalist pressure forced them to let him return. In 1956 he negotiated independence from France; the following year he took the h1 of king.

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orig. Cassius (Marcellus) Clay

(born Jan. 17, 1942, Louisville, Ken., U.S.) U.S. boxer. Cassius Clay took up boxing at the age of 12 and rose through the amateur ranks to win the Olympic light heavyweight crown in 1960. His first professional heavyweight h1 win was against Sonny Liston in 1964. After defending the h1 nine times between 1965 and 1967, he was stripped of it for refusing induction into the armed forces following his acceptance of the teachings of the Nation of Islam. It was then that he changed his name to Muhammad Ali. In 1974 Ali regained his h1 after defeating the former champion Joe Frazier and the then-current champion George Foreman. He lost to Leon Spinks in 1978 but later that year regained the h1 a third time, becoming the first heavyweight champion ever to do so. He retired in 1979, having lost only three of 59 fights. Attempted comebacks in 1980 and 1981 failed. Throughout his career Ali was known for his aggressive charm, invincible attitude, and colourful boasts, often expressed in doggerel verse. “I am the greatest” was his personal credo. Ali's later years have been marked by physical decline. Damage to his brain, caused by blows to the head, has resulted in slurred speech, slowed movement, and other symptoms of Parkinson disease.

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or Mohammed

(born circa 570, Mecca, Arabia—died June 8, 632, Medina) Arab prophet who established the religion of Islam. The son of a merchant of the ruling tribe, he was orphaned at age six. He married a rich widow, Khadījah, with whom he had six children, including Fātsubdotimah, a daughter. According to tradition, in 610 he was visited by the angel Gabriel, who informed Muhammad that he was the messenger of God. His revelations and teachings, recorded in the Qurhamzahān, are the basis of Islam. He began to preach publicly circa 613, urging the rich to give to the poor and calling for the destruction of idols. He gained disciples but also acquired enemies, whose plan to murder Muhammad forced him to flee Mecca for Medina in 622. This flight, known as the Hijrah, marks the beginning of the Islamic era. Muhammad's followers defeated a Meccan force in 624; they suffered reverses in 625 but repelled a Meccan siege of Medina in 627. He won control of Mecca by 629 and of all Arabia by 630. He made his last journey to Mecca in 632, establishing the rites of the hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca. He died later that year and was buried at Medina. His life, teachings, and miracles have been the subjects of Muslim devotion and reflection ever since.

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