Wolgemut or Wohlgemuth, Michael, 1434-1519, German painter, wood carver, and engraver who worked mainly in Nuremberg. First instructed by his father and in Munich, he traveled and then returned to Hans Pleydenwurff's shop in Nuremberg where he worked on the Hofer Altarpiece. The Descent from the Cross panel in this work is treated in a highly patterned, almost abstract style. Wolgemut was the master of Albrecht Dürer. Besides large painted and sculptured altarpieces at Zwickau and Schwabach, executed in his shop, Wolgemut produced hundreds of designs for illustrated books such as the World Chronicle of 1493. The vigor of his outlines is in accord with his taste for drama, complex movement, and forceful characterization.

Wohlgemuth, Michael: see Wolgemut, Michael.

Wigglesworth, Michael, 1631-1705, American clergyman and poet, b. England, grad. Harvard, 1651. His family emigrated to New England in 1638. A devoted minister at Malden, Mass., he also practiced medicine and wrote didactic poetry. His Day of Doom (1662), a ballad of Puritan theology, was extremely popular and was followed by God's Controversy with New England (written c.1662; printed 1873), Meat out of the Eater (1670), and lesser writings. Replete with vivid biblical imagery, Wigglesworth's verse reflects his dedication to his austere faith.

Walzer, Michael, 1935-, American political philosopher, b. New York City, attended Brandeis Univ. (B.A., 1956), Cambridge (1956-57), and Harvard (Ph.D., 1961). A prominent liberal thinker and prolific author, Walzer has written about many areas of political theory and moral philosophy. He is probably best known for his work on the morality of war, discussed in his classic Just and Unjust Wars (1977) and the more recent Arguing about War (2004). His work also has concentrated on issues of nationalism, ethnicity, economic justice, the welfare state, tolerance and accomodation, and the history of Jewish political thought. Other books include Political Action (1971), Spheres of Justice (1983), What It Means to Be an American (1992), and Politics and Passion (2004). Co-editor of Dissent magazine, Walzer is also a frequent contributer to The New York Review of Books and The New Republic. Walzer has been a professor at Princeton (1962-66), Harvard (1966-80), and the Institute for Advanced Study (1980-).

Ventris, Michael George Francis, 1922-56, English linguist. Ventris was a student of architecture, but he became interested in the untranslated Mycenaean scripts, particularly Linear B, which was found at Knossos, Pylos, and other sites. In 1952 he collaborated with John Chadwick in the decipherment and subsequent publication of Documents in Mycenaean Greek (1956). His theory, now generally accepted by scholars, indicates that Linear B was an archaic form of the Greek language. Ventris died at 34 as the result of an automobile accident.

Troup, George Michael, 1780-1856, governor of Georgia (1823-27), b. McIntosh Bluff, on the Tombigbee River, Ala. (then a part of Georgia). As governor, he was an extreme supporter of states' rights. The final removal of the Creek from Georgia and the cession of their lands to the state was due in great part to his belligerent and uncompromising attitude toward both the Native Americans and the federal government. He was also a U.S. Representative (1807-15) and Senator (1816-18, 1829-33).

Tippett, Sir Michael, 1905-98, English composer, b. London. Tippett studied at the Royal College of Music. During World War II he was briefly imprisoned as a conscientious objector. His strongly held socio-political views as well as his humanistic approach and mystical bent are often reflected in his work. His music is typically neoclassical in form, and blends the tonal, the modal, and the contemporary. Tippett utilized British folk, American jazz, and African elements in some of his works. He was knighted in 1966. His compositions include a concerto for double string orchestra (1939); the oratorio A Child of Our Time (1944); four symphonies (1945, 1958, 1973, 1977); five string quartets (1928, 1942, 1946, 1979, 1991); the symphonic The Rose Lake (1993); and the operas Midsummer Marriage (1955), King Priam (1962), The Knot Garden (1970), The Ice Break (1977), and New Year (1989).

Tilson Thomas, Michael: see Thomas, Michael Tilson.

Thomas, Michael Tilson, 1944-, American conductor, composer, and pianist, b. Hollywood, Calif. A musical prodigy, he won Tanglewood's Koussevitsky Prize at 24 and shortly thereafter (1969) made his conducting debut with the Boston Symphony. Although he was a protégé of Leonard Bernstein and an often controversial musical director of the Buffalo Philharmonic (1971-79), until the 1990s many felt that his career had not lived up to its early promise. He was guest conductor of the Los Angeles Philharmonic (1981-85), a founder of Miami's New World Symphony (1987), and principal conductor of the London Symphony Orchestra (1987-94). He became musical director of the San Francisco Symphony in 1994 and has been very successful at attracting a large and diverse concert audience. Thomas is known for his sometimes brash personality, flamboyant conducting style, broad repertoire, and devotion to modern American music.

Sovern, Michael Ira, 1931-, American lawyer and educator, president of Columbia Univ. (1980-93), b. New York City. He graduated from the Columbia Univ. Law School in 1955 and after 1957 he was on its faculty. Dean of the law school from 1970 to 1979 and provost from 1979 to 1980, he was president of Columbia from 1980 until his resignation in 1993. He continued to teach law at Columbia and became president of the Japan Society.

Servetus, Michael, 1511-53, Spanish theologian and physician. His name in Spanish was Miguel Serveto. In his early years he came in contact with some of the leading reformers in Germany and Switzerland—Johannes Oecolampadius, Martin Bucer, Wolfgang Fabricius Capito, and probably Martin Luther. But he held views, concerning the Trinity in particular, that brought condemnation from the theologians of the Reformation as well as from those of the Roman Catholic Church. When he published De trinitatis erroribus (1531) and De trinitate (1532), the feeling of opposition was so strong that he assumed the name of Michel de Villeneuve, from the family home, Villanueva, and spent some time in Lyons, working on an edition of Ptolemy's geography and other scientific works, then in Paris studying medicine. There he is said to have seen John Calvin. He became well-known for his ability in dissection and had unusual success as a physician; he discovered that some of the blood circulates through the lungs. From 1541 to 1553 he lived in the palace of the archbishop of Vienne as his confidential physician. When (1553) he had a work setting forth his ideas of Christianity secretly printed, investigation was begun by the Inquisition. Servetus, arrested, tried, and condemned, escaped from prison. Several months later, while making his way to Italy, he was seized in Geneva by Calvin's order. There, after a long trial, in which Calvin's condemnation was a stern factor, he was burned on Oct. 27, 1553.

Scot, Michael, c.1175-c.1234, medieval scholar, b. Scotland. He served as astrologer and physician at the court of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, where with other scholars he translated Aristotle and Averroës into Latin. Scot was best known as a magician, however, famed for his occult learning and reputed supernatural powers. Numerous legends arose concerning his miraculous feats. He figures in Dante's Inferno and Scott's Lay of the Last Minstrel.

Schwab, Charles Michael, 1862-1939, American steel magnate, b. Williamsburg, Pa. He started as a stake driver in Andrew Carnegie's steelworks and rose to become (1897) president of the Carnegie Steel Company and then the first president (1901) of the U.S. Steel Corp. He resigned (1903) to run the Bethlehem Steel Company, which under his direction became the largest independent producer in the field.

Schumacher, Michael, 1969-, German auto race driver, b. Hürth-Hermühlheim. Regarded as the best Formula 1 (F1) driver of his era, he debuted as a racecar driver in 1988 and within two years had become Germany's Formula Three champion. His first F1 race was the 1991 Belgian Grand Prix, and his first F1 victory was in the same event in 1992. Schumacher has driven the Jordan team (his first race), Benetton (1991-95), and Ferrari (1995-). He won the world championship in 1994, repeating the feat in 1995. His career was interrupted in 1999, when he suffered a broken leg in his first severe crash, but in 2000 he began a five-year reign as world champion, becoming the first driver to win the F1 title seven times. He has more than 90 career F1 race wins.

Rudd, Kevin Michael, 1957-, Australian political leader, b. Nambour, Queensland, grad. Australian National Univ. 1981. After working (1981-88) in the ministry of foreign affairs and trade, including stints in the Australian embassies in Sweden and China, he entered politics as politics as chief of staff to Queensland Labor party leader Wayne Goss. In 1996 he ran for the Australian House of Representatives from the S Brisbane suburbs and lost, but he won in the same district in 1998 and subsequently has been reelected. In Labor's shadow cabinet as foreign affairs spokesman from 2001, he won the party leadership post in 2006. In Nov., 2007, Rudd led the Labor party back power after four consecutive Liberal-National victories and became prime minister. In 2008 he officially apologized to Australia's aborigines for the nation's past mistreatment of them.

Rostovtzeff, Michael Ivanovich, 1870-1952, American historian, b. Kiev, Ukraine. He studied at the Univ. of St. Petersburg where he was professor of Latin and of Roman history from 1898 to 1918. He emigrated to the United States during the Russian Revolution, taught ancient history at the Univ. of Wisconsin (1920-25), and was appointed (1925) Sterling professor of ancient history and archaeology at Yale. From 1939 to 1944, when he received emeritus status, Rostovtzeff was director of archaeological studies at Yale. One of the most distinguished modern scholars of ancient history, Rostovtzeff won his chief reputation through his Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire (1926) and A History of the Ancient World (Vol. I, The Orient and Greece, 1926; Vol. II, Rome, 1927). The first of these was a pioneering effort in its application of the most recent archaeological research to an aspect of Roman history that until then had been neglected. These are admirable condensations and place the cultural, economic, and social aspects of ancient life on the same level of importance as political and military events. The work has taken its place among the chief modern contributions to Roman historiography, as has his parallel study A Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World (1941). Among Rostovtzeff's other works in English are A Large Estate in Egypt in the Third Century B.C. (1922) and Iranians and Greeks in South Russia (1922).

Ramsey of Canterbury, Arthur Michael Ramsey, Baron, 1904-88, archbishop of Canterbury (1961-74), b. Cambridge, England. He was educated at Repton School; Magdalene College, Cambridge; and Cuddesdon Theological College. After his ordination in 1928 he held various teaching posts. In 1940 he was appointed canon of Durham Cathedral and professor of divinity at the Univ. of Durham, and in 1950 he became regius professor of divinity at Cambridge. In 1952 he was consecrated bishop of Durham and from 1956 to 1961 was archbishop of York. In June, 1961, he succeeded Geoffrey Francis Fisher as archbishop of Canterbury. Although a member of the High-Church group, Ramsey pressed for increased autonomy for the Church of England and was active in the ecumenical movement. He retired as archbishop in 1974 and was succeeded by Donald Coggan; he was subsequently created a life peer. A noted scholar, his works include The Gospel and the Catholic Church (1931), The Resurrection of Christ (1945), F. D. Maurice and the Conflict of Modern Theology (1951), and From Gore to Temple (1960).

Quill, Michael Joseph, 1905-66, American labor leader, b. Co. Kerry, Ireland. Quill was active (1919-23) in the movement for Irish independence before emigrating (1926) to the United States. He worked as a laborer and in the New York City subways, and in 1934 he helped to organize the Transport Workers Union of America, of which he became president in 1935. In 1937 the union became affiliated with the Congress of Industrial Organizations, and Quill succeeded, with the help of John L. Lewis, in getting closed-shop contracts with transit lines of New York City. He then led in expanding the activities of the union to other big cities in the United States. As a member (1937-39, 1943-49) of the city council of New York, Quill—a colorful and fiery speaker—fought for numerous municipal reforms. Quill died shortly after he led a transit strike that paralyzed New York City for 12 days.

Pupin, Michael Idvorsky, 1858-1935, American physicist and inventor, b. Idvor, Hungary (now in Serbia), grad. Columbia (B.A., 1883). He came to the United States in 1874 and from 1889 was associated with Columbia (as professor of electromechanics, 1901-31). He is known for his researches in X rays and for his invention of numerous electrical devices used in telegraphy and telephony. Pupin wrote the Pulitzer Prize-winning autobiography, From Immigrant to Inventor (1923).

Praetorius, Michael, 1571-1621, German composer and musicographer, whose name originally was Schultheiss. He was a prolific composer, his Musae Sioniae (9 vol., 1605-11) alone containing 1,244 choral works. Now he is remembered chiefly for his Syntagma musicum (3 vol., 1615-19), which minutely describes the musical practices and the instruments of his day.

Pakenham, Sir Edward Michael, 1778-1815, British general. He entered the army in 1794 and served in the wars against Napoleon I, emperor of France. He distinguished himself in the Peninsular War at Salamanco in 1812. During the War of 1812 with the United States, he commanded British forces in the battle of New Orleans; it was the last engagement of the war, fought on Jan. 8, 1815, after peace had been signed at Ghent. Andrew Jackson led the American troops, who won a decisive victory over the British during which Pakenham was killed.

Pacher, Michael, c.1435-1498, German religious painter and probably a wood carver, a native of the Tyrol. He painted figures reminiscent of the art of Mantegna, whose work Pacher must have seen on a trip to N Italy. His few known works are chiefly altarpieces, composed on a monumental scale and distinguished for their beauty of workmanship. His masterpiece is the great altarpiece in the village church of St. Wolfgang, Salzkammergut, Austria, executed c.1480 and consisting of a beautifully carved centerpiece in late Gothic style with four wings, painted with scenes from the lives of Jesus and St. Wolfgang.

Ondaatje, Michael, 1943-, Canadian writer, b. Colombo, Sri Lanka (then Ceylon). Emigrating (1962) to Canada, he attended the Univ. of Toronto (B.A., 1965) and Queen's Univ., Ontario (M.A., 1967). He has been an English professor at Glendon College, York Univ., Toronto since 1971. His first published works were poems, noted for their mixture of fact and fiction, real and surreal. His Collected Works of Billy the Kid (1970) blends poetry, prose, and visual materials into a compelling portrait of the American outlaw. Other poetry collections include The Dainty Monsters (1967), Rat Jelly (1973), The Cinnamon Peeler (1990), and Handwriting (1998). Ondaatje is best known for his novels, which also mingle reality and imagination, exploring a variety of cultures and mingling present and past in richly evocative prose. With his most celebrated novel, The English Patient (1992; film, 1996), a tale of love and betrayal set in a ruined Italian villa during World War II, Ondaatje became the first Canadian to win the Booker Prize. His other novels are Coming through Slaughter (1976), In the Skin of a Lion (1987), and Anil's Ghost (2000). He has also written screenplays and edited anthologies and a literary journal.

Moore, Michael, 1954-, American documentary filmmaker, author, and sociopolitical activist, b. Flint, Mich. After working as an alternative print and radio journalist, he embarked on a career as a highly personal, populist, frequently polarizing, and increasingly controversial documentary filmmaker. Appalled by his native city's economic decline as a result of downsizing and closings by General Motors, he made Roger & Me (1989), a satirical journey in which he unsuccessfully tries to meet with GM's chairman. His next major work, Bowling for Columbine (2002; Academy Award), is a scathing look at America's gun culture. Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004), his most controversial and financially successful film to date, is an angry critique of the Bush administration's handling of post-9/11 events and Iraq. His next documentary, Sicko (2007), an indictment of the American healthcare industry, especially the ways insurance companies, primarily HMOs, deny appropriate care to subscribers. Moore also has produced television programs combining news and satire and written several provocative books, e.g., Downsize This! (1996), Stupid White Men (2001), and Dude, Where's My Country? (2003).

Milken, Michael Robert, 1946-, American financial executive, b. Van Nuys, Calif. Nicknamed the "junk bond king," he was an executive at Drexel Burnham Lambert, Inc., where he transformed corporate takeovers and financing by the use of high-yield junk bonds. At the height of his success in the 1980s, Milken's personal wealth was legend; according to the government, Drexel paid Milken $296 million in 1986 and $550 million in 1987. In 1989 a federal grand jury indicted Milken for violations of federal securities and racketeering laws. He pled guilty to securities fraud and related charges in 1990, and the government dropped the more serious charges of insider trading and racketeering. Milken was fined and sentenced to prison for ten years; in 1991 his sentence was reduced to two years plus three years probation. Barred from the securities business for life, Milken worked as a strategic business consultant after his release from prison. The Securities and Exchange Commission charged that this work was a violation of his probation, and in 1998 Milken settled with the SEC and paid the government $42 million in fees that he had earned plus interest. Milken, who had prostate cancer, established (1993) a foundation to underwrite a search for its cure; he is also a founder (1996) of Knowledge Universe, an educational services company.

Michael the Brave, d. 1601, prince of Walachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Michael was one of Romania's greatest medieval rulers, as well as a celebrated military commander. Having been obliged to pay a large sum to the Ottoman emperor for his appointment as prince of Walachia, he did away with his Ottoman creditors, who had advanced him the money, by summoning them to his palace and then having them massacred. This act was imitated throughout Walachia and became known as the Walachian Vespers. Michael repeatedly routed an Ottoman retaliatory army with the help of Sigismund Báthory, prince of Transylvania, and mercenaries; Michael's subjects were oppressively taxed to pay for the victory. In 1596 the sultan made peace, leaving Walachia virtually independent. Michael now turned to the conquest of Transylvania, which he accomplished after defeating (1599) Andrew Cardinal Báthory, to whom Sigismund had given up his throne. Initially, Michael had the support of Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II and he was able to unite all Romanians under his sole rule. However, Rudolf II soon came to suspect Michael's increased power, and when Transylvanian nobles provoked a rebellion against Michael, the imperial army in Hungary under Gen. George Basta came to their aid. Defeated, Michael fled and presented himself at the imperial court in Vienna, where he was pardoned and reinstated as governor of Transylvania. Returning, he defeated Sigismund Báthory, who had renewed his claim to the principality, but Michael was shortly afterward assassinated on the order of General Basta. After his death Walachia and Moldavia reverted to Ottoman control, while Transylvania came under Austrian domination; the union of the three areas became a national ideal in succeeding generations, and Michael himself a national hero.

Michael VIII (Michael Palaeologus), c.1225-1282, Byzantine emperor (1261-82), first of the Palaeologus dynasty. Following the murder of the regent for Emperor John IV of Nicaea, he was appointed (1258) regent and, soon afterward (1259), coemperor. He successfully defended (1259) Nicaea against the coalition of the despotat of Epirus, Sicily, and Achaea. Michael then led his army against the crumbling Latin Empire of Constantinople and recovered (1261) its capital from Emperor Baldwin II. With the Byzantine Empire thus restored, Michael was crowned by the patriarch. He later had John IV blinded and imprisoned. The remainder of Michael's reign was taken up by his fight against Charles I of Naples and Sicily, and against the despotat of Epirus. He concluded peace with the Tatars and Mamluks in 1272. For support against Charles he vacillated between Venice and Genoa as allies. He negotiated with Pope Gregory X for a union of the Eastern and Western Churches, and in 1274 his emissaries at the Second Council of Lyons (see Lyons, Second Council of) agreed to recognize the spiritual supremacy of the pope. However, in 1281 Pope Martin IV, a supporter of Charles, broke the union by excommunicating Michael, while Charles's troops with those of Venice invaded Epirus. Michael saved his throne by financing a rebellion in Sicily, which broke Charles's power in the Sicilian Vespers. Michael was distinguished for his learning and left an autobiography. His son Andronicus II succeeded him.

Michael III (Michael the Amorian or Phrygian), 836-67, Byzantine emperor (842-67), son and successor of Theophilus and grandson of Michael II. His minority saw the final overthrow of iconoclasm and a severe persecution of the Paulicians. Upon coming of age he entrusted the government to his capable uncle, Bardas, whose administration (856-66) was marked by the missions of saints Cyril and Methodius to the Slavs and by the conversion of Czar Boris I of Bulgaria. The Arabs continued their raids into the empire and extended their conquests in Sicily, although their eastward expansion was temporarily stopped (863). In the north, he defeated (860-61) the Russians. Michael made Basil of Macedonia (later Basil I) one of his favorites and together they had Bardas assassinated in 866. Basil was made coemperor. He then murdered Michael and became sole emperor. The schism precipitated by the patriarch Photius began in the last year of Michael's reign.

Michael II (Michael the Stammerer), d. 829, Byzantine emperor (820-29). A native of Phrygia, he fought with Emperor Leo V, whom he had helped gain the throne. Leo had him arrested for heading a conspiracy, but the plotters murdered Leo and raised Michael to the throne. In the religious controversy, Michael tolerated both orthodoxy and iconoclasm but personally favored iconoclasm. He lost (825) Crete to the Arabs, who began (827) the invasion of Sicily. He was succeeded by his son Theophilus and by (842) his grandson Michael III.

Michael I (Michael Rangabe), d. c.845, Byzantine emperor (811-13), son-in-law of Nicephorus I. He supported orthodoxy against iconoclasm and recalled Theodore of Studium from exile. He recognized (812) Charlemagne's claim as emperor. Defeated by the Bulgars, he was deposed and exiled. Leo V succeeded him.

Michael [Heb.,=who is like God?], archangel prominent in Christian, Jewish, and Muslim traditions. In the Bible and early Jewish literature, Michael is one of the angels of God's presence. He is depicted as a warrior-prince leading the celestial armies against wicked forces and as Israel's guardian angel. The intermediary between God and Moses on Mt. Sinai, Michael also confronts the devil over Moses' right of proper burial. In Christian tradition he is the angel with the sword. Michael is venerated in the Roman Catholic and Eastern churches. His feast (jointly with the other archangels) is Michaelmas, Sept. 29; it is the anniversary of the dedication of a Roman basilica to him. On May 8 he is honored for his apparition (492?) on Monte Gargano, Italy. He is supposed to have appeared to Joan of Arc and on the site of Mont-Saint-Michel.

Michael (Michael Romanov), 1596-1645, czar of Russia (1613-45), founder of the Romanov dynasty; grandnephew of Anastasia, first wife of Ivan IV. His election as czar, following successive appearances of false pretenders (see Dmitri), ended the so-called Time of Troubles, a period of social and political chaos in Russia that had begun in the late 16th cent. The real power in the government was Michael's father, the patriarch Philaret (d. 1633). During Michael's reign the peasantry was further reduced to serfdom; peace was temporarily obtained with Poland and Sweden; and some Western industrial and military techniques were introduced by foreign manufacturers and other experts. Michael was succeeded by his son Alexis.

Michael, 1921-, king of Romania (1927-30, 1940-47). His father, Prince Carol (later Carol II), renounced his right of succession in 1925, and young Michael ascended the throne under a regency on the death of Ferdinand. However, in 1930 his father returned to be recognized as king. When Carol II was deposed in 1940, Michael once more became king. In 1944 he overthrew the dictatorship of Ion Antonescu and concluded an armistice with the Allies (see Romania). Conflicts with the Communist-dominated coalition government after World War II led to his abdication (Dec., 1947) and exile; he was stripped of his Romanian citizenship a year later. He married Princess Anne of Bourbon-Parma in 1948. Since the collapse (1989) of Communist rule in Romania, his citizenship has been restored (1997) and he has reestablished a residence in Romania.

Michael (Michael Obrenović), 1823-68, prince of Serbia (1839-42, 1860-68); younger son of Prince Miloš. He succeeded his brother, Milan, but was deposed (1842) several years later by supporters of Alexander (Alexander Karadjordjević). In 1858, Miloš was restored to the throne and Michael returned with his father, on whose death (1860) he once more became prince. Michael modernized his country and prepared its complete liberation from Ottoman vassalage. At the end of his reign, the last Ottoman garrisons withdrew from the Serbian fortresses, including Belgrade. Michael was assassinated and was succeeded by his cousin Milan.

Michael, in the Bible. 1 Father of Sethur the spy. 2 Chief of Issachar. 3 One of David's captains at Ziklag. 4 Jehoshaphat's murdered son.

Mansfield, Michael Joseph, 1903-2001, U.S. senator (1953-77), b. New York City. After working (1922-31) as a mining engineer, he taught (1933-42) history at Montana State Univ. before serving (1943-53) as a Democrat in the U.S. House of Representatives. Elected (1952) to the Senate, Mansfield succeeded Lyndon B. Johnson as Senate majority leader and held that post from 1961 until 1977 when he became ambassador to Japan. He retired in 1989. As majority leader he wielded much power and during the 1960s and 70s he helped win the passage of major civil-rights legislation, liberal social reform programs, and important foreign-policy laws. Mansfield had the longest tenure as majority leader of any senator in U.S. history.

Manley, Michael Norman, 1924-97, prime minister of Jamaica (1972-80, 1989-92); son of Norman Manley. A leader of the socialist People's National party, he was first elected to parliament in 1967. Winning a landslide victory in 1972, he shifted Jamaican politics to the left, establishing close relations to Cuba, nationalizing industry, and denouncing U.S. imperialism. He was reelected in 1976, but in 1980 lost to conservative Edward Seaga. Manley was returned to power in 1989, this time leading a more moderate government and encouraging foreign investment. Following serious illness, he resigned in 1992.

Manley, Michael Norman, 1924-97, prime minister of Jamaica (1972-80, 1989-92); son of Norman Manley. A leader of the socialist People's National party, he was first elected to parliament in 1967. Winning a landslide victory in 1972, he shifted Jamaican politics to the left, establishing close relations to Cuba, nationalizing industry, and denouncing U.S. imperialism. He was reelected in 1976, but in 1980 lost to conservative Edward Seaga. Manley was returned to power in 1989, this time leading a more moderate government and encouraging foreign investment. Following serious illness, he resigned in 1992.

Lenz, Jakob Michael Reinhold, 1751-92, German writer. He was a friend of Goethe, whom he first imitated, then lampooned. A gifted poet, he wrote lyric poems; plays, including the comedies Der Hofmeister (1774) and Die Soldaten (1776); and critical works, notably Anmerkungen übers Theater [remarks on the theater] (1774). He is a principal representative of the Sturm und Drang movement.

Károlyi, Count Michael, 1875-1955, Hungarian politician, of an ancient noble family. A liberal, he organized (1918) a national council for Hungary after the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and was made premier. His attempt to strike a balance between the extreme right and left undermined his position. A republic was set up and in Jan., 1919, Károlyi was elected provisional president, apparently in order to remove him from active control. Forced in the end to choose between the conservatives and the Communists, he surrendered the government to the Communists. The dictatorship of Bela Kun was set up in Mar., 1919. Károlyi left Hungary when Kun's regime collapsed. He returned from England to Hungary after World War II and was appointed (1947) Hungarian ambassador to France. In 1949 he resigned because of disagreement with the policy of his government. He remained in France until his death. His memoirs appeared in English in 1956.

Kerschensteiner, Georg Michael, 1854-1932, German educational theorist. Educated in Munich, he taught math in Nuremberg and Schweinfurt, he was director of the Munich public schools from 1895 to 1919 and became (1920) a professor at the Univ. of Munich. He developed a pragmatic approach to education that included the integration of academic study with physical activity and the establishment of a network of vocational schools. Kerschensteiner summarized his philosophy in Theorie der Bildungsorganisation (1933).

Jordan, Michael Jeffrey, 1963-, American basketball player, b. Brooklyn, N.Y. As a freshman at the Univ. of North Carolina, he made the shot that won the 1982 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) tournament final over Georgetown. Joining the Chicago Bulls of the National Basketball Association (NBA) in 1984, he was the 1985 Rookie of the Year and developed into the outstanding guard of the late 1980s and the 1990s. From 1991 to 1993, Jordan led the Bulls to three NBA championships. In 1993 he announced his retirement, saying he had achieved all his goals in basketball, and began a second career as a baseball player. After two unspectacular years in the minor-league system of the Chicago White Sox, however, he returned to the NBA early in 1995, and in 1996-98 he led the Bulls to three more championships. In 1999 he retired again. The following year he became a part owner of the NBA's Washington Wizards, but in 2001 sold his share of the team and signed with the Wizards and played for two seasons.

Noted especially for his leaping ability, the 6 ft 6 in. (198 cm) Jordan is widely considered the greatest basketball player ever. The NBA career leader in scoring average, he was the league's leading scorer each year from 1986 to 1993 and 1996 to 1998, for a record ten titles, and is third on the all-time points list. Jordan also starred for the 1984 and 1992 U.S. Olympic teams. Known as "Air Jordan" or "His Airness," he is a global celebrity, and his commercial endorsements and investments have made him the world's wealthiest athlete.

Jackson, Michael Joseph, 1958-, American performer, b. Gary, Ind. Jackson is known as a superb dancer and pop singer, often conveying an androgynous image and an ambiguous sexuality, but offstage he has become known for various alleged eccentricities, for his sharp business acumen, and for a physical appearance that has changed radically over the years. As a child in the 1960s and 70s he was the dominant voice and youngest member of the Jackson Five, a pop group that included five brothers. With his solo albums Off the Wall (1979) and the even more successful Thriller (1982), which sold over 30 million copies, he became one of the world's leading pop stars. His success continued with Bad (1987) and Dangerous (1991), both of which sold over 20 million copies. In 1993 he was charged in a civil suit with sexual abuse of a minor, a charge he denied. The suit was settled out of court in 1994, and no criminal charges were filed. Jackson's much-publicized double album HIStory (1995) was criticized as petty, maudlin, and paranoid and garnered comparatively disappointing sales. Reaction to his next album, Invincible (2001), was mixed. Jackson was indicted in another sexual abuse case in 2004. The trial, in 2005, was marked by sensational testimony and spellbound media coverage, and ended in Jackson's acquittal.

Innes, Michael, pseud. of John Innes Mackintosh Stewart, 1906-94, British writer and scholar, b. near Edinburgh. From 1969 to 1973 he was a reader in English literature at Oxford. Under his own name he wrote novels, short stories, and such critical studies as Character and Motive in Shakespeare (1949), Rudyard Kipling (1966), and Thomas Hardy (1971). As "Michael Innes" he wrote more than forty detective stories featuring John Appleby, a gentleman turned policeman. These erudite and witty mysteries include Seven Suspects (1936), A Comedy of Terrors (1940), The Open House (1972), and The Appleby File (1975).

Howard, Michael, 1941-, British politician, leader of the Conservative party (2003-5), b. Llanelli, Wales, as Michael Hecht. The son of immigrants (his father changed the family name after becoming a British subject in 1947), he was educated at Cambridge and became a successful barrister. In 1983 he was elected to Parliament, and in 1985 became a junior minister under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. In 1990 he became employment and environment minister, a post he continued to hold under Prime Minister John Major. Appointed home secretary in 1993, he was known for his tough anticrime stance. After Major resigned as party leader (1997), Howard sought unsuccessfully to succeed him. However, following Iain Duncan Smith's loss of the leadership post in 2003, Howard won the position unopposed, becoming the first Jew to lead a major British party (Disraeli had been baptized). Howard resigned as party leader following the Conservative loss in the 2005 elections; he was succeeded by David Cameron.

Heseltine, Michael Ray Dibdin, 1933-, British politician. After studying law at Oxford, he built a successful career in publishing before entering the House of Commons as a Conservative in 1966. He held junior posts in the Heath government (1970-74). In Margaret Thatcher's government, he was secretary for the environment (1979-83) and then secretary for defense in 1983, resigning in protest over his treatment in the 1986 Westland helicopter affair, which involved the leak of a confidential communication. He was regarded as Thatcher's strongest rival and initiated a challenge to her leadership in 1990. She resigned, but John Major assumed the prime ministership. Heseltine again became environmental secretary and was responsible for repealing the highly unpopular poll tax. In 1992 he became president of the Board of Trade and secretary for trade and industry; from 1995 to 1997 he was deputy prime minister under Major.

Healy, Timothy Michael, 1855-1931, Irish statesman, first governor-general of the Irish Free State (1922-27). Elected to Parliament in 1880, he worked closely with Charles Stewart Parnell until the O'Shea divorce scandal (1890). Thereafter he led the anti-Parnell nationalists in Parliament. He was expelled from the party in 1902 but retained his seat in Parliament until 1918, when he resigned it to a Sinn Féiner. In the meantime he practiced at the bar, especially in the interests of Irish tenants and woman suffragists. On the foundation (1922) of the Irish Free State he was appointed governor-general and showed a remarkable spirit of conciliation in the performance of his duties. He resigned in 1927.

Haydn, Michael, 1737-1806, Austrian composer, younger brother of Franz Joseph Haydn. Haydn, largely self-taught, was noted especially for his sacred music. He was a friend of Mozart, whose Symphony No. 37 is actually Haydn's work with an introduction by Mozart. Toward the end of his life Haydn taught the Czech composer Antonín Reicha and Carl Maria von Weber.

Harnett, William Michael, 1848-92, American painter, b. Ireland. He emigrated to Philadelphia as a child; he first learned engraving and then studied painting at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts and at the National Academy of Design and Cooper Union. He executed mainly still lifes and excelled in the rendering of textures and trompe-l'ɶil (eye-deceiving) realistic effects. Examples of his work are After the Hunt (Calif. Palace of the Legion of Honor, San Francisco), Emblems of Peace (Springfield Mus. of Fine Arts, Mass.), and The Faithful Colt (Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Conn.).

Hainisch, Michael, 1858-1940, president of Austria (1920-28). He was a leading agriculturist and a noted writer. Politically acceptable to all major parties, he was elected first president of the new republic in 1920 and was reelected in 1924. He was (1929-30) minister of commerce and transportation in the Schober cabinet. Throughout his political career Hainisch strongly favored a union of Austria and Germany.

Graves, Michael, 1934-, American architect, b. Indianapolis, Ind., educated at the Univ. of Cincinnati and Harvard. Graves was a member of the New York "Five" or "white" modernist architects during the 1960s, the other four being Richard Meier, Peter Eisenman, Charles Gwathmey, and John Hejduk. In the 1970s, Graves emerged as a leading proponent of the American postmodernist style. His completed projects include the Portland Building in Portland, Oreg.; the Swan and Dolphin Hotels in Walt Disney World, Fla.; the Walt Disney Company Corporate Headquarters in Burbank, Calif.; the Newark Museum in Newark, N.J.; the Emory Univ. Museum of Art and Architecture in Atlanta, Ga.; the expansion of the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City; and the Central Library in Denver. Graves is also known for his design of furniture, furnishings, and artifacts.

Gratz, Michael: see Gratz, Barnard.

Gates, Robert Michael, 1943-, American government official, secretary of defense (2006-), b. Wichita, Kans. A circumspect and pragmatic career intelligence officer, he joined (1966) the Central Intelligence Agency as an analyst and spent more than 25 years with the CIA and the National Security Council. Deputy director of intelligence of the CIA (1982-86), he was suspected of involvement in the Iran-Contra affair, and when President Ronald Reagan nominated (1987) him as CIA director, Congress called for further investigation into the CIA's role in the matter and Gates withdrew his name from consideration. Under President George H. W. Bush, Gates was deputy national security adviser (1989-91) and CIA director (1991-93). He later was a dean (1999-2001) and university president (2002-6) at Texas A&M Univ. In 2006 Gates was appointed secretary of defense by President George W. Bush, succeeding Donald H. Rumsfeld when the latter resigned as sectarian violence in U.S.-occupied Iraq worsened. Though Gates was a member of the Iraq Study Group, which unanimously recommended (2006) changes in the admininstration's Iraq policies, President Bush opted for a short-term troop surge focused on Baghdad, an action the group had not favored. Gates has written From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider's Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War (1996).

Franzén, Frans Michael, 1772-1847, Swedish poet, a bishop, b. Finland. He became professor of philosophy at Åbo in 1798. His Ode to Gustaf Philip Creutz (1797) marks the birth of romantic lyric poetry in Sweden.

Foot, Michael, 1913-, British politician. He entered Parliament in 1945 and became a spokesperson for the Labour party's radical left wing. Editor of the party organ, the Tribune, he served as secretary of state for employment (1974-75) and as leader of the House of Commons (1976-79). He succeeded James Callaghan as Labour party leader (1980-83) and tried to maintain the party's traditional policies in the face of the opposition of more conservative members, who broke away and formed the Social Democratic party.

Field, Michael, pseud. used by two English authors, Katherine Harris Bradley, 1846-1914, and her niece Edith Emma Cooper, 1862-1913, who collaborated on numerous literary works, including lyrics and poetic tragedies. Although their work was praised by such contemporaries as Robert Browning and George Moore, it is almost forgotten today.

Faraday, Michael, 1791-1867, English scientist. The son of a blacksmith, he was apprenticed to a bookbinder at the age of 14. He had little formal education, but acquired a store of scientific knowledge through reading and by attending educational lectures including, in 1812, one by Sir Humphry Davy. The following year he became Davy's assistant at the Royal Institution in London. Faraday was made a member of the institution in 1823 and a fellow of the Royal Society in 1824. In 1825 he became director of the laboratory, and from 1833 he was Fullerian professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution. He subsequently declined knighthood and the presidency of the Royal Society.

Faraday's experiments yielded some of the most significant principles and inventions in scientific history. He developed the first dynamo (in the form of a copper disk rotated between the poles of a permanent magnet), the precursor of modern dynamos and generators. From his discovery of electromagnetic induction (1831; also independently discovered by the American Joseph Henry) stemmed a vast development of electrical machinery for industry. In 1825 he discovered the compound benzene. In addition to other contributions he did research on electrolysis, formulating Faraday's law. He also laid the foundations of the classical electromagnetic field theory, later fully developed by J. C. Maxwell. Some of his works were collected as Experimental Researches in Electricity (3 vol., 1839-55) and Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics (1859).

Dukakis, Michael Stanley, 1933-, American political leader, b. Brookline, Mass. He was a Democratic member of the Massachusetts house of representatives (1963-70) and was twice elected governor of Massachusetts (1975-79; 1983-91). As a member of the state legislature he sponsored the nation's first no-fault auto insurance bill. As governor his policies included tax amnesty and his Employment and Training Program to help welfare recipients secure paying jobs. He defeated a crowded field for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1988 and named Senator Lloyd Bentsen as his running mate. George H. W. Bush, the Republican candidate, won easily in the general election.

Drayton, Michael, 1563-1631, English poet. The son of a prosperous tradesman, he received his educational training in the house of Sir Henry Goodere, where he served as page. There he made a lasting friendship with Anne Goodere, the youngest daughter of Sir Henry, who became the "Idea" in his series of sonnets (1593-1619). His work reflects the many poetic fashions of the day. He wrote poems on English history and topography (England's Heroical Epistles, 1597-99; the 15,000-line panoramic Poly-Olbion, 1612-22; Mortimeriados, 1596, recast in The Barons' Wars, 1597); satires (The Owl, 1604, and "The Moon Calf," 1627); a Spenserian, though mock-heroic, fairyland poem (Nymphidia, 1627); and the idyllic Muses' Elysium (1630). He also wrote scriptural paraphrases, pastorals, popular ballads, myths, and collaborated on plays.

DeBakey, Michael Ellis, 1908-2008, American surgeon, b. Lake Charles, La. While still at Tulane medical school (M.D., 1932), DeBakey developed the roller pump, which later became an essential component of the heart-lung machine, and he later made refinements in the technique of blood transfusions. During World War II he helped develop what became the mobile army surgical hospital (MASH), allowing treatment of war casualties near the front lines. In 1948, DeBakey became head of surgery at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, and his work there made that institution an important center for medical research and education. Five years later, he made medical history by performing the first successful carotid endarterectomy. A pioneer in Dacron grafts for blood vessels, DeBakey revolutionized the surgery of aneurysms. In 1966 he successfully implanted a ventricular assist device (see heart, artificial) in a patient; it was removed after the patient's heart strengthened. He also led (1968) the team of surgeons that performed the first multiple organ harvest and transplant, in which four patients received organs from a single donor. DeBakey, who received a Lasker Award in 1963, was president of Baylor College of Medicine from 1969 to 1979 and chancellor from 1979 to 1996; he retired as head of surgery in 1993.

Davitt, Michael, 1846-1906, Irish revolutionary and land reformer. He joined the Fenian movement in 1865 and was imprisoned three times by the English for his revolutionary activities. Davitt and Charles Stewart Parnell were the leading figures in the organization of the National Land League in 1879 (see Irish Land Question). Influenced by the theories of Henry George, Davitt broke with Parnell over the question of land nationalization. But he remained an important Irish leader and was instrumental in bringing the Parnell and anti-Parnell factions together in the United Irish League (1898).

Dahl, Michael, 1656-1743, Swedish portrait painter. In 1688, after traveling on the Continent, he settled in England. After the death of Kneller in 1723, Dahl enjoyed an enormous popularity, painting Queen Anne and members of the aristocracy. Beyond a surface artificiality, Dahl's work reflects a considerable humanity. His paintings are to be seen in the National Portrait Gallery, London (e.g., Self-Portrait, 1691), and in Windsor Castle.

Curley, James Michael, 1874-1958, American political leader, b. Boston. He held many municipal offices, served (1902-3) in the Massachusetts legislature, and became a power in the Democratic party of Boston before he served (1911-14) in the U.S. House of Representatives. Curley—whose colorful personality and shrewd political manipulations steadily increased his popularity—served three terms as mayor of Boston (1914-18, 1922-26, 1930-34) before he was governor of Massachusetts (1935-37) and again U.S. Congressman (1943-46). After Curley was once more elected (1945) mayor of Boston, he was convicted (1946-47) of mail fraud. He served (1947) five months in prison before his sentence was commuted by President Truman. After he fulfilled his duties as mayor (1947-50) and was defeated (1949) for reelection to that post, Curley was given (1950) a full pardon by Truman.

Cudahy, Michael, 1841-1910, American meat packer, b. Co. Kilkenny, Ireland. He went (1849) to Milwaukee and after 1856 worked for meatpacking firms. In the 1870s he introduced refrigeration into the meatpacking industry. He became a partner of Philip D. Armour and later, with his brother John, established a packing company in Omaha, Nebr.

Cresap, Michael, 1742-75, American frontiersman and soldier, b. Allegany co., Md. A Native American fighter, he was accused by Thomas Jefferson and others of massacring the family of the friendly Native American chief Logan and thus starting (1774) Lord Dunmore's War. But this is denied by most modern historians who accept a letter from George Rogers Clark stating that Cresap was with him at the time of the massacre. Cresap fought in the war, and after the American Revolution began he became (1775) captain of a company of riflemen. Cresap drove his men at such a hard pace to support the patriots at Boston—traveling 550 mi (885 km) in 22 days—that he died of exhaustion as a result.

Conrad, Michael Georg, 1846-1927, German critic and novelist. With Karl Bleibtreu, he founded (1885) the journal Gesellschaft as a rallying point for German writers of the naturalistic school. Conrad espoused the cause of Zola with great enthusiasm. His works include a volume of criticism, Madame Lutetia (1883), and a naturalistic novel of Munich life, Was die Isar rauscht [What the Isar murmurs] (1887).

Collins, Michael, 1890-1922, Irish revolutionary leader. He spent the years from 1907 to 1916 in England, during which period he joined the Fenian movement. He took part in the Easter Rebellion in Dublin in 1916 and was imprisoned for the rest of the year. One of the Sinn Féin members who set up the Dáil Éireann in 1919, he led the Irish Republican Army in the guerrilla campaign against British rule that eventually forced the British government to sue for a truce. Although a convinced republican, Collins, with Arthur Griffith, negotiated and signed the treaty (1921) that set up the Irish Free State (see Ireland) because he felt it the best settlement with England possible at that time. He was finance minister in Griffith's government for a brief time before being assassinated by extremist republicans.

Cohan, George Michael, 1878-1942, American showman, b. Providence, R.I. As a child he appeared in vaudeville as one of "The Four Cohans" with his father, mother, and sister, Josephine. He eventually wrote the act and was the business manager. The Governor's Son (1901) was his first attempt at Broadway; Little Johnny Jones (1904) was his first success. Cohan wrote the book, music, and lyrics for 20 musicals; he was the producer, director, and most often the star. His inimitable style set the pattern of fast-moving, flippant and gay musicals; his characters were often modeled after real persons. Such shows as Forty-five Minutes from Broadway (1906), Hello, Broadway (1914), and The Song and Dance Man (1923), and such songs as "The Yankee Doodle Boy," "Give My Regards to Broadway," "Over There," and "You're a Grand Old Flag" show his preoccupation with flag-waving patriotism. Through his long career he had only one partner, Sam H. Harris. In 1913, Cohan revolutionized the mystery farce with his dramatization of Earl Derr Bigger's novel Seven Keys to Baldpate. He was an excellent adapter and play doctor; he described his adaptations as "Cohanized." As an actor he was noted for his debonair characterizations; his performances in O'Neill's Ah, Wilderness! (1934) and as the President in I'd Rather Be Right (1937) were particularly notable. His last public appearance was in his own play Return of the Vagabond (1940).

Choniates, Michael: see Acominatus, Michael.

Chertoff, Michael, 1953-, U.S. government official, b. Elizabeth, N.J., grad. Harvard (B.A., 1975, J.D., 1978). A lawyer, Chertoff was an assistant federal prosecutor in New York (1983-87) and New Jersey (1987-90) before becoming U.S. attorney for New Jersey (1990-94). Subsequently in private practice, he also served (1994-96) as special counsel to the U.S. Senate committee that investigated Whitewater. Under President George W. Bush, he was (2001-3) assistant attorney general in charge of the Justice Dept.'s criminal division, where, after the Sept., 2001, terror attacks, he advocated expanding government powers to deal with terrorism, including detaining terror suspects without charging them by declaring them "material witnesses." That policy became especially controversial when most such detainees were subsequently not linked to terrorist groups. Appointed to the federal appeals bench in 2003, Chertoff returned to the executive branch in 2005 as President Bush's homeland security secretary, succeeding Tom Ridge. Chertoff's, and his department's, response to the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina (2005) were criticized in a 2006 congressional report.

Brown, Michael Stuart, 1941-, American molecular geneticist, b. New York City, M.D. Univ. of Pennsylvania, 1966. He worked (1968-71) as a researcher at the National Institutes of Health before going to the Southwestern Medical School of the Univ. of Texas at Dallas. Brown and colleague Joseph L. Goldstein researched cholesterol metabolism and discovered that human cells have low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptors that extract cholesterol from the bloodstream. The lack of sufficient LDL receptors is a major cause of cholesterol-related diseases. In 1985, Goldstein and Brown were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

Bloomberg, Michael Rubens, 1942-, American businessman and politician, mayor of New York City (2002-), b. Boston, Mass. Bloomberg studied at Johns Hopkins Univ. (B.S., 1964) and Harvard Business School (M.B.A., 1966). Rising quickly in the world of finance, he became a partner at Salomon Brothers, but in 1981, after a merger, he was fired. Anticipating growing needs for business information, he used his $10 million severance to start a financial data and communications company, Bloomberg L.P. The company grew rapidly into a huge multifaceted enterprise that provides accurate real-time financial and business data as well as historical data and analysis and electronic communications and produces television and radio programs. Bloomberg himself became a multibillionaire. Long a Democrat, he ran in 2001 for New York mayor as a Republican, spending record-breaking amounts of his own money, and was elected to succeed Rudolph Giuliani. He was reelected in 2005. In 2007 he quit the Republican party, becoming an independent.

Bishop, John Michael, 1936-, American biologist, b. York, Penn., M.D. Harvard, 1962. He worked (1964-68) as a researcher at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Md., before joining the faculty of the Univ. of California at San Francisco, where he has been chancellor since 1998. Bishop and his colleague Harold E. Varmus discovered the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes, for which they were awarded the 1989 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

Bimeler, Joseph Michael, 1778-1853, German religious leader, originally called Bäumler. A teacher of the separatists in Württemberg, in 1817 he led a group of them to America. In Ohio they founded the community of Zoar.

Bennett, Michael, 1943-87, American dancer and choreographer, b. Buffalo, N.Y. He appeared in West Side Story and Subways Are for Sleeping. During the 1970s, he was one of the most successful directors and choreographers of Broadway musicals. His credits include Promises, Promises (1968), Coco (1969), and Follies (1971). In A Chorus Line (1975), one of the most successful musicals in history, the song-and-dance elements of the show are so interwoven with the plot as to be inseparable.

Bellman, Carl Michael, 1740-95, Swedish poet; protégé of Gustavus III. His early poetry was chiefly religious. His dithyrambic odes in Fredmans Epistlar (1790) and Fredmans Sånger (1791) include bacchanals, pastorals, and comic pieces. A fine performer of his own verse, Bellman sometimes wrote music for it, but more often he borrowed French melodies and music from contemporary plays.

Balfe, Michael William, 1808-70, Irish composer. Of his many operas, very popular in their time, the best known was The Bohemian Girl (1843).

Bajus, Michael: see Baius, Michael.

Baius or Bajus, Michael, 1513-89, Flemish Roman Catholic theologian, also known as Michel de Bay. He was chancellor of the Univ. of Louvain and was sent to the Council of Trent. Baius was the center of a subtle controversy on grace, in which he is said to have been the forerunner of Jansenism (see under Jansen, Cornelis). His position was peculiar in giving original sin an important place while at the same time making man partly instrumental in his own redemption. His doctrines were condemned several times (especially by the bull of St. Pius V, Ex omnibus afflictionibus, 1567), but Baius abjured, or recanted, each time, and he died in the church.

Asser, Tobias Michael Carel, 1838-1913, Dutch jurist. He was a delegate to many international conferences, including the Hague Conference of 1899, and he wrote on international law. A proponent of international arbitration, he shared the 1911 Nobel Peace Prize with Alfred Fried.

Arlen, Michael, 1895-1956, English novelist, b. Bulgaria as Dikran Kuyumjian. The son of Armenian parents, he was brought to England as a child. In 1922 he became a British subject and changed his name, and in 1928 he married Countess Atalanta Mercati. Arlen is best remembered for his fantastically successful novel (and play) The Green Hat (1924), which depicts the licentious postwar life of fashionable London society. His characters are disillusioned, cynical, and witty. Although sophisticated, the novel is ultimately sentimental. Arlen's novels depicted the mood of the 1920s, and by the 30s he was no longer read. His last novel, Flying Dutchman, appeared in 1939.

Acominatus, Michael, or Michael Choniates, c.1140-1220, Byzantine writer and metropolitan of Athens. Acominatus' speeches, poems, and letters give much information about medieval Athens, which he, a classicist, found barbarous and degenerate. His brother, Nicetas Choniates, c.1150-c.1213, wrote an important history of the Byzantine Empire covering the period 1180 to 1206.

(born Aug. 10, 1848, Clonakilty, Ire.—died Oct. 29, 1892, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Irish-born U.S. still-life painter. Brought to Philadelphia as a child, he was trained as an engraver and soon developed outstanding skill in trompe l'oeil painting. While traveling in Europe he painted his best-known work, After the Hunt (1885). In 1886 he settled in New York City. His work, popular with the public, was generally dismissed by critics. After a long period of disrepute, his works again were appreciated and sought after when mid-20th-century critics recognized Harnett's outstanding skill at abstract composition.

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(born July 12, 1922, Wheathampstead, Hertfordshire, Eng.—died Sept. 6, 1956, near Hatfield, Hertfordshire) British architect and cryptographer. At age 14 he heard a lecture on the continuing mystery of Linear B script (see Linear A and Linear B) and resolved to decipher it. In 1952 he determined that Linear B was Greek in its oldest known form, dating from circa 1400–1200 BC. He collaborated with John Chadwick (1920–98) on Documents in Mycenaean Greek (1956), published a few weeks after his own death in an auto accident.

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(born Jan. 2, 1905, London, Eng.—died Jan. 8, 1998, London) British composer. Tippett studied composition (1923–28) at the Royal College of Music. His early music was conservative, but in the late 1930s he developed a personal, modernistic idiom that was marked by rhapsodic lyricism, intricate counterpoint, and polyphonic rhythms that have a lilting, bounding quality. He devoted most of his energies to compositions with words (generally his own), including the cantatas A Child of Our Time (1941) and The Mask of Time (1984), and the operas The Midsummer Marriage (1952), King Priam (1961), The Knot Garden (1969), and The Ice Break (1976). Beginning with King Priam, his surging rhythms and lush harmonies gave way to a starker, more taut style. His instrumental works include symphonies and string quartets.

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(born May 17, 1855, Bantry, County Cork, Ire.—died March 26, 1931, Dublin) Irish political leader. Soon after he entered Parliament in 1880, the “Healy Clause” of the Land Act of 1881, protecting tenant farmers' agrarian improvements from rent increases, made him popular in Ireland. Long associated with Charles Stewart Parnell, he broke with him in 1886. He grew dissatisfied with both the Liberals and the Irish Nationalists in the wake of the 1916 Easter Rising, and after 1917 he supported Sinn Féin. He was supported by both the British and Irish ministries as governor-general (1922–28) of the new Irish Free State.

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(born Jan. 2, 1905, London, Eng.—died Jan. 8, 1998, London) British composer. Tippett studied composition (1923–28) at the Royal College of Music. His early music was conservative, but in the late 1930s he developed a personal, modernistic idiom that was marked by rhapsodic lyricism, intricate counterpoint, and polyphonic rhythms that have a lilting, bounding quality. He devoted most of his energies to compositions with words (generally his own), including the cantatas A Child of Our Time (1941) and The Mask of Time (1984), and the operas The Midsummer Marriage (1952), King Priam (1961), The Knot Garden (1969), and The Ice Break (1976). Beginning with King Priam, his surging rhythms and lush harmonies gave way to a starker, more taut style. His instrumental works include symphonies and string quartets.

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orig. Miguel Servet

(born 1511?, Villanueva or Tudela, Spain—died Oct. 27, 1553, Champel, Switz.) Spanish physician and theologian. His views alienated both Roman Catholics and Protestants, beginning with the publication of his first book, De Trinitatis erroribus (1531), in which he denied the Holy Trinity. His most important work, Biblia sacra ex Santis Pagnini translatione (1542), was notable for its theory of prophecy. Elsewhere he questioned the usefulness of baptism and criticized the promulgation of the Nicene Creed. Persecuted by John Calvin, he was convicted of heresy in Geneva and burned at the stake. His notable contribution to medicine was the first accurate description of cardiopulmonary circulation of the blood (1553).

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(born Feb. 18, 1862, Williamsburg, Pa., U.S.—died Sept. 18, 1939, New York, N.Y.) U.S. entrepreneur and steel-industry pioneer. He joined Andrew Carnegie's steelworks at Braddock, Pa., as a labourer and rose swiftly in the Carnegie empire. In 1892 Carnegie delegated to Schwab the task of returning the plant in Homestead, Pa., to normal production after the bloody Homestead Strike. His success in improving labour relations and increasing production led to his appointment as president of Carnegie Steel Co. in 1897 at the age of 35. Schwab proposed the merger of the competing steel companies that would create the U.S. Steel Corp., and he became its first president in 1901. He resigned in 1903 to devote himself to the Bethlehem Steel Corp., which he built into one of the nation's largest steel producers of its time.

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(born circa 1435, County of Tirol—died August 1498, Salzburg?, Archbishopric of Salzburg) Austrian painter and sculptor. His colossal altarpiece for the Pilgrimage Church of St. Wolfgang in Upper Austria (1479–81) is a masterpiece of late Gothic painting, sculpture, and architecture. The painted panels, with their deep architectural perspective and dramatic foreshortening, indicate a knowledge of Andrea Mantegna. The sculptural portions, with their intricate detail, bright polychrome, and sweeping draperies, show his attachment to northern traditions; and the architectural elements show an extravagant version of the late Gothic style. Pacher was one of the earliest artists to introduce the principles of Renaissance painting into German-speaking regions.

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(born Sept. 12, 1943, Colombo, Ceylon) Sri Lankan-born Canadian novelist and poet. He immigrated to Montreal at age 19 and attended the University of Toronto and Queen's University. His fascination with the American West led to one of his most celebrated works, the pastiche The Collected Works of Billy the Kid (1970). His novel The English Patient (1992, Booker Prize; film, 1996) won him international recognition; it was followed by Anil's Ghost (2000). His musical poetry and prose are a blend of myth, history, jazz, memoirs, and other forms.

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(born July 4, 1946, Encino, Calif., U.S.) U.S. financier and entrepreneur. He studied at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School and went to work in 1969 for what was to become Drexel Burnham Lambert Inc., an investment-banking company. In 1971 he became head of its bond-trading department. He persuaded many of his clients to invest in junk bonds issued by new or financially troubled companies; the capital he raised financed a new class of “corporate raiders” who carried out numerous mergers, acquisitions, hostile takeovers, and leveraged buyouts in the 1980s. By the end of the decade, the junk-bond market was worth $150 billion, and Drexel was a leading financial firm. In 1986 its client Ivan Boesky, convicted of insider trading, implicated Milken and the firm in his dealings. Charged with securities fraud and heavily fined, Drexel declared bankruptcy in 1990 when the junk-bond market collapsed. Milken pled guilty to securities fraud the same year and was sentenced to 10 years in prison and a $600-million fine; released after 22 months, he since made a second fortune.

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orig. Miguel Servet

(born 1511?, Villanueva or Tudela, Spain—died Oct. 27, 1553, Champel, Switz.) Spanish physician and theologian. His views alienated both Roman Catholics and Protestants, beginning with the publication of his first book, De Trinitatis erroribus (1531), in which he denied the Holy Trinity. His most important work, Biblia sacra ex Santis Pagnini translatione (1542), was notable for its theory of prophecy. Elsewhere he questioned the usefulness of baptism and criticized the promulgation of the Nicene Creed. Persecuted by John Calvin, he was convicted of heresy in Geneva and burned at the stake. His notable contribution to medicine was the first accurate description of cardiopulmonary circulation of the blood (1553).

Learn more about Servetus, Michael with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born July 4, 1946, Encino, Calif., U.S.) U.S. financier and entrepreneur. He studied at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School and went to work in 1969 for what was to become Drexel Burnham Lambert Inc., an investment-banking company. In 1971 he became head of its bond-trading department. He persuaded many of his clients to invest in junk bonds issued by new or financially troubled companies; the capital he raised financed a new class of “corporate raiders” who carried out numerous mergers, acquisitions, hostile takeovers, and leveraged buyouts in the 1980s. By the end of the decade, the junk-bond market was worth $150 billion, and Drexel was a leading financial firm. In 1986 its client Ivan Boesky, convicted of insider trading, implicated Milken and the firm in his dealings. Charged with securities fraud and heavily fined, Drexel declared bankruptcy in 1990 when the junk-bond market collapsed. Milken pled guilty to securities fraud the same year and was sentenced to 10 years in prison and a $600-million fine; released after 22 months, he since made a second fortune.

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(born circa 1435, County of Tirol—died August 1498, Salzburg?, Archbishopric of Salzburg) Austrian painter and sculptor. His colossal altarpiece for the Pilgrimage Church of St. Wolfgang in Upper Austria (1479–81) is a masterpiece of late Gothic painting, sculpture, and architecture. The painted panels, with their deep architectural perspective and dramatic foreshortening, indicate a knowledge of Andrea Mantegna. The sculptural portions, with their intricate detail, bright polychrome, and sweeping draperies, show his attachment to northern traditions; and the architectural elements show an extravagant version of the late Gothic style. Pacher was one of the earliest artists to introduce the principles of Renaissance painting into German-speaking regions.

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(born Dec. 10, 1924, St. Andrew, Jam.—died March 6, 1997, Kingston) Jamaican political leader. Son of a prime minister of Jamaica and a sculptor, Manley was a leader of the People's National Party and the National Worker's Union before becoming prime minister in 1972. His leftist government made significant improvements in housing, education, and health care, but a dramatic rise in oil prices precipitated an economic crisis. Much of the middle class fled the country, unemployment rose to 30percnt, and violence broke out in the run-up to the 1980 election, in which he was defeated. He was reelected in 1989, this time as a moderate; he stepped down in 1992 for health reasons.

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known as Mike Mansfield

(born March 16, 1903, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died Oct. 5, 2001, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician who was the longest-serving majority leader (1961–77) in the U.S. Senate. He worked in Montana copper mines and later taught history at Montana State University. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1943 to 1953 and in the Senate from 1953 to 1977. An outspoken critic of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, he sponsored a 1971 bill calling for a cease-fire and phased withdrawal. He was a persistent critic of Pres. Richard Nixon, especially during the Watergate scandal. After retiring, he served as U.S. ambassador to Japan (1977–88).

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(born Aug. 29, 1958, Gary, Ind., U.S.) U.S. singer and songwriter. The nine-year-old Jackson became the lead singer of the Jackson 5, a family group formed by his father. Their hits on the Motown label included “I Want You Back” and “ABC.” Though Michael remained a member of the group until 1984, he began recording under his own name in 1971. His album Off the Wall (1979) sold millions; his next solo album, Thriller (1982), sold more than 40 million copies, becoming the best-selling album in history. The emerging format of the music video was an important aspect of Jackson's work; his videos for “Beat It” and “Billie Jean” (both 1983) featured his highly influential dancing style (notably his trademark “moonwalk”). He later released the albums Bad (1987), Dangerous (1991), and HIStory (1995). Despite his many efforts to speak out on social issues, Jackson's eccentric, secluded lifestyle stirred controversy in the early 1990s. His reputation was seriously damaged in 1993 when he was accused of child molestation by a 13-year-old boy; a civil suit was settled out of court. In 2003 Jackson was arrested on charges of child molestation; he was acquitted in 2005. His numerous honours include induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Jackson 5 (1997) and as a solo performer (2001). Several of his siblings, notably his sister Janet (b. 1966), have also enjoyed solo success.

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(born Feb. 17, 1963, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. basketball player. As a freshman in 1982, he helped the University of North Carolina win the collegiate national championship. Drafted by the Chicago Bulls in 1984, he won 10 scoring h1s and 5 Most Valuable Player awards while leading the Bulls to six championships (1991–93, 1996–98). He was also part of the 1984 and 1992 U.S. Olympic basketball teams that won gold medals. He retired briefly in 1993, hoping to play professional baseball, but returned to the Bulls in 1995. He retired again in 1999, but, after a stint as an owner and general manager of the Washington Wizards, Jordan returned to play for that team in 2001. Known as “Air Jordan” for his exceptional leaping ability, he combined acrobatic play with a fierce competitive spirit and was considered among the game's greatest players. His success on the court and in the business world made him one of the most popular and recognized athletes of all time.

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(born Sept. 30, 1906, Edinburgh, Scot.—died Nov. 12, 1994, Coulsdon, Surrey, Eng.) Scottish-born English novelist, literary critic, and educator. Stewart began writing while working as a college professor. In his mystery novels, he created the character of Inspector John Appleby, a British detective known for his suave humour and literary finesse. Among the best of these mysteries, all published under the pseudonym of Michael Innes, are Lament for a Maker (1938), The Journeying Boy (1949), and An Awkward Lie (1971). Stewart wrote other works of fiction under his own name, as well as several works of literary criticism. His autobiography, Myself and Michael Innes, was published in 1987.

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(born July 9, 1934, Indianapolis, Ind., U.S.) U.S. architect and designer. He studied at Harvard University and in 1962 began a long teaching career at Princeton University while designing private houses in the abstract and austere style of orthodox Modernism. In the late 1970s he rejected Modernist expression and began seeking a larger, postmodernist vocabulary. The hulking masses of the Portland Building in Portland, Ore. (1980), and the Humana Building in Louisville, Ky. (1982), display his highly personal, Cubist rendering of such Classical elements as colonnades and loggias. Though considered somewhat awkward, these and his later buildings (e.g., Indianapolis Art Center, 1996) have been acclaimed for their ironic interpretation of traditional forms. Among his later projects were the restoration of the Washington Monument (2000) and the creation of a line of household items, including kitchenware and furniture, for the discount retailer Target.

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(born July 12, 1922, Wheathampstead, Hertfordshire, Eng.—died Sept. 6, 1956, near Hatfield, Hertfordshire) British architect and cryptographer. At age 14 he heard a lecture on the continuing mystery of Linear B script (see Linear A and Linear B) and resolved to decipher it. In 1952 he determined that Linear B was Greek in its oldest known form, dating from circa 1400–1200 BC. He collaborated with John Chadwick (1920–98) on Documents in Mycenaean Greek (1956), published a few weeks after his own death in an auto accident.

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(born July 23, 1913, Plymouth, Devon, Eng.) Leader of Great Britain's Labour Party (1980–83). He worked as a newspaper editor and columnist (1937–74) and served in Parliament (1945–55, 1960–92). He served in Harold Wilson's cabinet as secretary of state for employment (1974–76) and leader of the House of Commons (1976–79). A left-wing socialist, Foot became the party's chief in 1980 by defeating its right-wing candidate. This and other left-wing trends caused some Labourites to resign to found the Social Democratic Party. His books include Aneurin Bevan (2 vol.; 1962, 1973).

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(born Sept. 22, 1791, Newington, Surrey, Eng.—died Aug. 25, 1867, Hampton Court) English physicist and chemist. Son of a blacksmith, he received only a basic education in a church Sunday school, but he went to work as an assistant to Humphry Davy, from whom he learned chemistry. He discovered a number of new organic compounds, including benzene, and was the first to liquefy a “permanent” gas. His major contributions were in the fields of electricity and magnetism. He was the first to report induction of an electric current from a magnetic field. He invented the first electric motor and dynamo, demonstrated the relation between electricity and chemical bonding, discovered the effect of magnetism on light, and discovered and named diamagnetism. He also provided the experimental, and much of the theoretical, foundation on which James Clerk Maxwell built his electromagnetic field theory. In 1833 he was appointed professor at the Royal Institution. After 1855 he retired to a house provided by Queen Victoria, but he declined a knighthood.

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(born Oct. 16, 1890, Clonakilty, County Cork, Ire.—died Aug. 22, 1922, Beal-na-Blath, Cork) Irish national leader. He worked in London (1906–16), then returned to fight in the Easter Rising. Elected as a member of Sinn Féin to the Irish assembly (1918), he became the Irish republic's first minister of home affairs. He was general of the volunteers and director of intelligence of the Irish Republican Army in the Anglo-Irish War. In 1921 he signed the controversial Anglo-Irish Treaty, which gave Ireland dominion status, though with provisions for partition and for an oath of allegiance to the crown. He and Arthur Griffith then became leaders of the provisional government. When civil war broke out, Collins commanded the government forces fighting the anti-treaty republicans, and on Griffith's death he became head of the government. Ten days later he was killed in an ambush at age 31.

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orig. Michael Bennett Difiglia

(born April 8, 1943, Buffalo, N.Y., U.S.—died July 2, 1987, Tucson, Ariz.) U.S. dancer, choreographer, and stage musical director. He began dancing at age three and left high school to tour in a production of West Side Story. His major contribution to dance was as choreographer-director of Broadway musicals such as Promises, Promises (1968), Company (1970), Follies (1971), and Dreamgirls (1981). His most remarkable musical was A Chorus Line (1975, Pulitzer Prize), which he conceived, directed, and choreographed. Bennett personally received eight Tony awards during his career.

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(born Oct. 25, 1921, Sinaia, Rom.) King of Romania. After his father, the future king Carol II, had been excluded from the royal succession (1926), Michael was proclaimed king under a three-member regency. Carol reclaimed the throne in 1930, and Michael was reduced to crown prince. With Carol's abdication in 1940, Michael again became king but was in effect a prisoner of the military dictator Ion Antonescu. In 1944 he helped lead the coup that overthrew the military regime and severed Romania's ties with the Axis powers. He strongly opposed the communists' subsequent rise to power, but was forced to abdicate in 1947. He went into exile in Switzerland and became an executive with a U.S. brokerage firm. In 1997 his Romanian citizenship was restored; he subsequently visited the country and sought the return of property holdings that were confiscated.

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known as Mike Mansfield

(born March 16, 1903, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died Oct. 5, 2001, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician who was the longest-serving majority leader (1961–77) in the U.S. Senate. He worked in Montana copper mines and later taught history at Montana State University. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1943 to 1953 and in the Senate from 1953 to 1977. An outspoken critic of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, he sponsored a 1971 bill calling for a cease-fire and phased withdrawal. He was a persistent critic of Pres. Richard Nixon, especially during the Watergate scandal. After retiring, he served as U.S. ambassador to Japan (1977–88).

Learn more about Mansfield, Michael (Joseph) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Dec. 10, 1924, St. Andrew, Jam.—died March 6, 1997, Kingston) Jamaican political leader. Son of a prime minister of Jamaica and a sculptor, Manley was a leader of the People's National Party and the National Worker's Union before becoming prime minister in 1972. His leftist government made significant improvements in housing, education, and health care, but a dramatic rise in oil prices precipitated an economic crisis. Much of the middle class fled the country, unemployment rose to 30percnt, and violence broke out in the run-up to the 1980 election, in which he was defeated. He was reelected in 1989, this time as a moderate; he stepped down in 1992 for health reasons.

Learn more about Manley, Michael (Norman) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Feb. 17, 1963, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. basketball player. As a freshman in 1982, he helped the University of North Carolina win the collegiate national championship. Drafted by the Chicago Bulls in 1984, he won 10 scoring h1s and 5 Most Valuable Player awards while leading the Bulls to six championships (1991–93, 1996–98). He was also part of the 1984 and 1992 U.S. Olympic basketball teams that won gold medals. He retired briefly in 1993, hoping to play professional baseball, but returned to the Bulls in 1995. He retired again in 1999, but, after a stint as an owner and general manager of the Washington Wizards, Jordan returned to play for that team in 2001. Known as “Air Jordan” for his exceptional leaping ability, he combined acrobatic play with a fierce competitive spirit and was considered among the game's greatest players. His success on the court and in the business world made him one of the most popular and recognized athletes of all time.

Learn more about Jordan, Michael (Jeffrey) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Feb. 9, 1940, Cape Town, S.Af.) South African novelist. Coetzee taught English at the University of Cape Town, translated works from the Dutch, and wrote literary criticism before publishing his first book, Dusklands (1974). He won international fame with In the Heart of the Country (1977) and Waiting for the Barbarians (1980), in which he attacked the legacy of colonialism; they were followed by The Life and Times of Michael K (1983, Booker Prize), which concerns a man of limited intelligence caught in a civil war; Foe (1986), a twist on Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe; the autobiographical Boyhood (1997); and others. Among his nonfiction works are Giving Offense: Essays on Censorship (1996) and The Lives of Animals (1999). In 1999 he became the first writer to win the Booker Prize twice when he received the award for his novel Disgrace (1999). In 2003 Coetzee won the Nobel Prize for Literature.

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(born Feb. 22, 1936, York, Pa., U.S.) U.S. virologist. He graduated from Harvard Medical School. In 1970 he and Harold Varmus tested the theory that healthy body cells contain oncogenes (cancer-causing genes). Further research showed that such genes can cause cancer even without viral involvement. By 1989, the year Bishop and Varmus shared a Nobel Prize for their research, scientists had identified more than 40 oncogenes in animals.

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(born Nov. 20, 1874, Boston, Mass., U.S.—died Nov. 12, 1958, Boston) U.S. politician. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1911–14). As Boston's mayor (1914–18, 1922–26, 1930–34, 1947–50), he dominated the city's politics for 50 years. He owed much of his success to serving the needs of Irish immigrants in exchange for votes. He centralized the powers of patronage in his own hands and distributed public works jobs so as to retain the loyalty and support of his working-class electoral base. As mayor, he brought the city close to bankruptcy by spending enormous sums on parks and hospitals to satisfy his various constituencies. Unable to win a seat in the Massachusetts delegation to the 1932 Democratic convention, Curley contrived by means he never explained to be elected a delegate from Puerto Rico. As governor of Massachusetts (1935–37), he spent New Deal funds lavishly on roads, bridges, and other public works programs. He won a seat in the House of Representatives in 1942 and was reelected two years later. His last mayoral term included five months in prison following a conviction for mail fraud; Pres. Harry Truman secured his release and later granted him a full pardon. His colourful career inspired Edwin O'Connor's novel The Last Hurrah (1956). His autobiography, I'd Do It Again, was published in 1957.

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(born Aug. 29, 1958, Gary, Ind., U.S.) U.S. singer and songwriter. The nine-year-old Jackson became the lead singer of the Jackson 5, a family group formed by his father. Their hits on the Motown label included “I Want You Back” and “ABC.” Though Michael remained a member of the group until 1984, he began recording under his own name in 1971. His album Off the Wall (1979) sold millions; his next solo album, Thriller (1982), sold more than 40 million copies, becoming the best-selling album in history. The emerging format of the music video was an important aspect of Jackson's work; his videos for “Beat It” and “Billie Jean” (both 1983) featured his highly influential dancing style (notably his trademark “moonwalk”). He later released the albums Bad (1987), Dangerous (1991), and HIStory (1995). Despite his many efforts to speak out on social issues, Jackson's eccentric, secluded lifestyle stirred controversy in the early 1990s. His reputation was seriously damaged in 1993 when he was accused of child molestation by a 13-year-old boy; a civil suit was settled out of court. In 2003 Jackson was arrested on charges of child molestation; he was acquitted in 2005. His numerous honours include induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Jackson 5 (1997) and as a solo performer (2001). Several of his siblings, notably his sister Janet (b. 1966), have also enjoyed solo success.

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(born May 17, 1855, Bantry, County Cork, Ire.—died March 26, 1931, Dublin) Irish political leader. Soon after he entered Parliament in 1880, the “Healy Clause” of the Land Act of 1881, protecting tenant farmers' agrarian improvements from rent increases, made him popular in Ireland. Long associated with Charles Stewart Parnell, he broke with him in 1886. He grew dissatisfied with both the Liberals and the Irish Nationalists in the wake of the 1916 Easter Rising, and after 1917 he supported Sinn Féin. He was supported by both the British and Irish ministries as governor-general (1922–28) of the new Irish Free State.

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(born Aug. 10, 1848, Clonakilty, Ire.—died Oct. 29, 1892, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Irish-born U.S. still-life painter. Brought to Philadelphia as a child, he was trained as an engraver and soon developed outstanding skill in trompe l'oeil painting. While traveling in Europe he painted his best-known work, After the Hunt (1885). In 1886 he settled in New York City. His work, popular with the public, was generally dismissed by critics. After a long period of disrepute, his works again were appreciated and sought after when mid-20th-century critics recognized Harnett's outstanding skill at abstract composition.

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(born July 9, 1934, Indianapolis, Ind., U.S.) U.S. architect and designer. He studied at Harvard University and in 1962 began a long teaching career at Princeton University while designing private houses in the abstract and austere style of orthodox Modernism. In the late 1970s he rejected Modernist expression and began seeking a larger, postmodernist vocabulary. The hulking masses of the Portland Building in Portland, Ore. (1980), and the Humana Building in Louisville, Ky. (1982), display his highly personal, Cubist rendering of such Classical elements as colonnades and loggias. Though considered somewhat awkward, these and his later buildings (e.g., Indianapolis Art Center, 1996) have been acclaimed for their ironic interpretation of traditional forms. Among his later projects were the restoration of the Washington Monument (2000) and the creation of a line of household items, including kitchenware and furniture, for the discount retailer Target.

Learn more about Graves, Michael with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born July 3, 1878, Providence, R.I., U.S.—died Nov. 5, 1942, New York, N.Y.) U.S. actor, songwriter, playwright, and producer. Cohan with his parents and sister performed in vaudeville as The Four Cohans. He began writing for the New York stage in the early 1900s; his musical Little Johnny Jones (1904; film, 1930) included the classics “Give My Regards to Broadway” and “Yankee Doodle Dandy.” Among his later productions were The Governor's Son (1901), The Talk of New York (1907), Broadway Jones (1912), Seven Keys to Baldpate (1913), and American Born (1925). He later appeared in shows such as Ah, Wilderness! (1933) and I'd Rather Be Right (1937). His best-known songs include “You're a Grand Old Flag,” “Mary's a Grand Old Name,” and the famous World War I recruiting song “Over There,” for which he was awarded a special Congressional medal in 1940. Cohan was the subject of the film Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942) and the musical George M! (1968).

Learn more about Cohan, George M(ichael) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born July 23, 1913, Plymouth, Devon, Eng.) Leader of Great Britain's Labour Party (1980–83). He worked as a newspaper editor and columnist (1937–74) and served in Parliament (1945–55, 1960–92). He served in Harold Wilson's cabinet as secretary of state for employment (1974–76) and leader of the House of Commons (1976–79). A left-wing socialist, Foot became the party's chief in 1980 by defeating its right-wing candidate. This and other left-wing trends caused some Labourites to resign to found the Social Democratic Party. His books include Aneurin Bevan (2 vol.; 1962, 1973).

Learn more about Foot, Michael with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Sept. 22, 1791, Newington, Surrey, Eng.—died Aug. 25, 1867, Hampton Court) English physicist and chemist. Son of a blacksmith, he received only a basic education in a church Sunday school, but he went to work as an assistant to Humphry Davy, from whom he learned chemistry. He discovered a number of new organic compounds, including benzene, and was the first to liquefy a “permanent” gas. His major contributions were in the fields of electricity and magnetism. He was the first to report induction of an electric current from a magnetic field. He invented the first electric motor and dynamo, demonstrated the relation between electricity and chemical bonding, discovered the effect of magnetism on light, and discovered and named diamagnetism. He also provided the experimental, and much of the theoretical, foundation on which James Clerk Maxwell built his electromagnetic field theory. In 1833 he was appointed professor at the Royal Institution. After 1855 he retired to a house provided by Queen Victoria, but he declined a knighthood.

Learn more about Faraday, Michael with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Nov. 20, 1874, Boston, Mass., U.S.—died Nov. 12, 1958, Boston) U.S. politician. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1911–14). As Boston's mayor (1914–18, 1922–26, 1930–34, 1947–50), he dominated the city's politics for 50 years. He owed much of his success to serving the needs of Irish immigrants in exchange for votes. He centralized the powers of patronage in his own hands and distributed public works jobs so as to retain the loyalty and support of his working-class electoral base. As mayor, he brought the city close to bankruptcy by spending enormous sums on parks and hospitals to satisfy his various constituencies. Unable to win a seat in the Massachusetts delegation to the 1932 Democratic convention, Curley contrived by means he never explained to be elected a delegate from Puerto Rico. As governor of Massachusetts (1935–37), he spent New Deal funds lavishly on roads, bridges, and other public works programs. He won a seat in the House of Representatives in 1942 and was reelected two years later. His last mayoral term included five months in prison following a conviction for mail fraud; Pres. Harry Truman secured his release and later granted him a full pardon. His colourful career inspired Edwin O'Connor's novel The Last Hurrah (1956). His autobiography, I'd Do It Again, was published in 1957.

Learn more about Curley, James Michael with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Oct. 16, 1890, Clonakilty, County Cork, Ire.—died Aug. 22, 1922, Beal-na-Blath, Cork) Irish national leader. He worked in London (1906–16), then returned to fight in the Easter Rising. Elected as a member of Sinn Féin to the Irish assembly (1918), he became the Irish republic's first minister of home affairs. He was general of the volunteers and director of intelligence of the Irish Republican Army in the Anglo-Irish War. In 1921 he signed the controversial Anglo-Irish Treaty, which gave Ireland dominion status, though with provisions for partition and for an oath of allegiance to the crown. He and Arthur Griffith then became leaders of the provisional government. When civil war broke out, Collins commanded the government forces fighting the anti-treaty republicans, and on Griffith's death he became head of the government. Ten days later he was killed in an ambush at age 31.

Learn more about Collins, Michael with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born July 3, 1878, Providence, R.I., U.S.—died Nov. 5, 1942, New York, N.Y.) U.S. actor, songwriter, playwright, and producer. Cohan with his parents and sister performed in vaudeville as The Four Cohans. He began writing for the New York stage in the early 1900s; his musical Little Johnny Jones (1904; film, 1930) included the classics “Give My Regards to Broadway” and “Yankee Doodle Dandy.” Among his later productions were The Governor's Son (1901), The Talk of New York (1907), Broadway Jones (1912), Seven Keys to Baldpate (1913), and American Born (1925). He later appeared in shows such as Ah, Wilderness! (1933) and I'd Rather Be Right (1937). His best-known songs include “You're a Grand Old Flag,” “Mary's a Grand Old Name,” and the famous World War I recruiting song “Over There,” for which he was awarded a special Congressional medal in 1940. Cohan was the subject of the film Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942) and the musical George M! (1968).

Learn more about Cohan, George M(ichael) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Feb. 18, 1862, Williamsburg, Pa., U.S.—died Sept. 18, 1939, New York, N.Y.) U.S. entrepreneur and steel-industry pioneer. He joined Andrew Carnegie's steelworks at Braddock, Pa., as a labourer and rose swiftly in the Carnegie empire. In 1892 Carnegie delegated to Schwab the task of returning the plant in Homestead, Pa., to normal production after the bloody Homestead Strike. His success in improving labour relations and increasing production led to his appointment as president of Carnegie Steel Co. in 1897 at the age of 35. Schwab proposed the merger of the competing steel companies that would create the U.S. Steel Corp., and he became its first president in 1901. He resigned in 1903 to devote himself to the Bethlehem Steel Corp., which he built into one of the nation's largest steel producers of its time.

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(born Feb. 22, 1936, York, Pa., U.S.) U.S. virologist. He graduated from Harvard Medical School. In 1970 he and Harold Varmus tested the theory that healthy body cells contain oncogenes (cancer-causing genes). Further research showed that such genes can cause cancer even without viral involvement. By 1989, the year Bishop and Varmus shared a Nobel Prize for their research, scientists had identified more than 40 oncogenes in animals.

Learn more about Bishop, J(ohn) Michael with a free trial on Britannica.com.

orig. Michael Bennett Difiglia

(born April 8, 1943, Buffalo, N.Y., U.S.—died July 2, 1987, Tucson, Ariz.) U.S. dancer, choreographer, and stage musical director. He began dancing at age three and left high school to tour in a production of West Side Story. His major contribution to dance was as choreographer-director of Broadway musicals such as Promises, Promises (1968), Company (1970), Follies (1971), and Dreamgirls (1981). His most remarkable musical was A Chorus Line (1975, Pulitzer Prize), which he conceived, directed, and choreographed. Bennett personally received eight Tony awards during his career.

Learn more about Bennett, Michael with a free trial on Britannica.com.