martial law, temporary government and control by military authorities of a territory or state, when war or overwhelming public disturbance makes the civil authorities of the region unable to enforce its law. Martial law refers to rule by the domestic army only; the rule of occupied territory by an invading army is known as military government. During a war, a nation may invoke martial law in some or all of its territory as part of the war effort. Martial law is also applied in serious cases of internal dissension; the army authorities may take over the administrative and judicial functions, and civil safeguards (e.g., habeas corpus and freedom of speech) may also be suspended. Where the civil courts remain open, even if their orders are executed by the military, martial law is not applicable. In the United States the federal government is limited in applying martial law by the provision of Article 1, Section 9, Subsection 2, of the Constitution, which concerns the suspension of habeas corpus. In most U.S. states, martial law may be proclaimed when deemed necessary for the public's safety. However, the U.S. Supreme Court in ex parte Milligan (1866) ruled that military trial of civilians when the civil courts were functioning was unconstitutional. Martial law, which applies to all persons, civil and military, in the area is to be distinguished from military law, the system of rules of government applying only to those in military service.

martial arts, various forms of self-defense, usually weaponless, based on techniques developed in ancient China, India, and Tibet. In modern times they have come into wide use for self-protection, as competitive sports, and for exercise.

Jujitsu teaches skills that enable one to overcome a bigger, stronger opponent. A popular style of jujitsu is aikido, which uses wrist, elbow, and shoulder twists and graceful falls; it is noncompetitive and incorporates various spiritual concepts. Judo, a Japanese sport created in 1882, makes use of jujitsu principles. Other popular forms of martial arts include kung fu, karate, and taekwondo, all of which emphasize blows with the feet and the side of the hand, and kendo, in which leather-covered bamboo "swords" are used. Judo and taekwondo are Olympic sports. Capoeira, a dancelike Brazilian discipline whose movements are performed to rhythmic music, is gaining in popularity.

The traditional Asian martial arts emphasize allowing ki (cosmic energy; also known as chi) to flow through one's body. This belief in ki connects the martial arts with t'ai chi ch'uan, a meditationlike discipline that emphasizes slow, graceful body movements. The most popular form of individual exercise in China, t'ai chi is often performed publicly in large groups; it has been claimed to reduce stress and lower blood pressure.

court-martial: see military law.

Martial (Marcus Valerius Martialis), c.A.D. 40-c.A.D. 104, Roman epigrammatic poet, b. Bilbilis, Spain. After A.D. 64 he lived in Rome for many years, winning fame by his wit and poetic gifts. He enjoyed the patronage of Domitian, Titus, and Pliny the Younger and the friendship of Juvenal and Quintilian. His verses are characterized by a twist of wit at the end of each and by original meter and form. They have become models for the modern epigram.

Lavigerie, Charles Martial Allemand, 1825-92, French churchman, cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, b. near Bayonne. He was ordained in 1849 and became prominent in the newly formed Écoles d'Orient. He was an authority on Islam. He was bishop of Nancy (1863-67), archbishop of Algiers (1867-92), and in 1884 he was named archbishop of the reestablished see of Carthage, a jurisdiction that included all of French Africa. His most successful efforts were directed toward African missions to Muslims, and he founded the White Fathers (the Society of Missionaries of Africa) for this work. He was a leader in the abolition of slavery in Africa. Cardinal Lavigerie created a sensation when (1890) he repudiated royalism and called on Catholics to support the Third Republic wholeheartedly.

Temporary rule of a designated area by military authorities in time of emergency when the civil authorities are deemed unable to function. Under martial law, civil rights are usually suspended, and the activities of civil courts are restricted or supplanted entirely by military tribunals. Such “acts done by necessity” are limited only by international law and the conventions of civilized warfare. Though temporary in theory, a state of martial law may in fact continue indefinitely. Seealso human rights; war crimes.

Learn more about martial law with a free trial on Britannica.com.

Any of several arts of combat and self-defense that are widely practiced as sport. There are armed and unarmed varieties, most based on traditional fighting methods used in East Asia. In modern times, derivatives of armed martial arts include kendo (fencing with wooden swords) and kyudo (archery). Unarmed varieties include aikido, judo, karate, kung fu, and tae kwon do. Because of the influence of Taoism and Zen Buddhism, there is a strong emphasis in all the martial arts on the practitioner's mental and spiritual state. A hierarchy of expertise, ranging from the novice (“white belt”) to the master (“black belt”), is usually recognized. Seealso t'ai chi ch'uan; jujitsu.

Learn more about martial art with a free trial on Britannica.com.

Military court for hearing charges brought against members of the armed forces or others within its jurisdiction; also, the legal proceeding of such a court. Most countries today have military codes of justice administered by military courts, often subject to civilian appellate review. Courts-martial are generally convened as ad hoc courts to try one or more cases referred by some high military authority. The convening officer chooses officers, and sometimes enlisted personnel, from his or her command to sit on the court, determine guilt or innocence, and hand down sentences. Seealso military law.

Learn more about court-martial with a free trial on Britannica.com.

Latin Marcus Valerius Martialis

(born circa AD 38/41, Bilbilis, Hispania—died circa 103) Roman poet. Born in a Roman colony in what is now Spain, Martial went to Rome as a young man. There he associated with such figures as Seneca, Lucan, and Juvenal and enjoyed the patronage of the emperors Titus and Domitian. His early poetry, some marred by gross adulation of Titus, was undistinguished. He is renowned for his 12 books of epigrams (86–102?), a form he virtually created. Pointed and often obscene, they provide a picture of Roman society during the early empire that is remarkable both for its completeness and for its accurate portrayal of human foibles.

Learn more about Martial with a free trial on Britannica.com.