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Goguryeo language
The Goguryeo language was spoken in the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo (37 BC – AD 668), one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The language is also known as Koguryo, Koguryoic, and Koguryoan.
It is unknown except for a small number of words, which mostly suggest that it was similar but not identical to the language of Silla, and influenced by the Tungusic languages. Supporters of the Altaic language family often classify the Goguryeo language as a member of that language family. Most Korean linguists believe that Goguryeo language was closest to the Altaic languages.
Striking similarities between Baekje and Goguryeo can also be found, which is consistent with the legends that describe Baekje being founded by the sons of Goguryeo's founder. The Goguryeo names for government posts are mostly similar to those of Baekje and Silla.
There are some hypotheses on the classification of the Goguryeo language which is disputed at the present time. 
Some linguists propose the so-called "Buyeo languages" family that includes the languages of Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Old Japanese. Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East Okjeo, and Gojoseon were similar, while the Goguryeo language differed significantly from that of Malgal (Mohe)
Some linguists propose the so-called "Buyeo languages" family that includes the languages of Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Old Japanese. Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East Okjeo, and Gojoseon were similar, while the Goguryeo language differed significantly from that of Malgal (Mohe)Some words of Goguryeo origin can be found in the old Korean language (early 10th to late 14th century) but most were soon replaced with ones of Silla origin.
Vocabulary comparison
The tables below provides a vocabulary comparison that illustrates a number of examples of sound shifts that have occurred between Goguryeo languages and the main Buyeo and Tungusic languages, along with a selection of minority languages.
| English | Goguryeo pronun. | Turkic | Mongol | Old Japanese | Japanese | Baekje | Silla | Middle Korean | Korean | Tungusic | Jurchen | Manchu | Evenki |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ruler | kʌi / kai(皆) kai-sɐ(皆次) ka(加)Buyeo languages | qaγan kagan | kaγan(可汗) | kami1("ruler") 君#Noun("king, emperor, monarch") | kami kimi("you") | ka kisi nirim | kan han kɯm("Gojoseon languages") | kɯi nim-kɯm | nim-kɯm | *** | *** | han | *** |
| royal family (大加) | kochu-ka (古鄒加) | *** | *** | kami1-tuka*>koduka kami2dukasa*>kandukasa ("Shinto priest") | kozuka | kənkir-ji("king") | kəsə-kan("king") kəsɯl-han("king") | *** | kɯ,kə,kɯn("big") | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| owner(主) | i (伊) | *** | *** | i("you") usi("owner") | nuʃi | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| king(太王) | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | əra-kha ("king") əryuk("queen") | *** | əlusin ("lord, master") | ərɯsin ("senior") | *** | *** | əlcin("ambassador, servant") | *** |
| title of honor | ~ ji / ki(支) | *** | *** | ti("father") di("grand father") | ʨiʨi ʥiʥi -ʥi | ~ ji / ki(支) | ~ ji / ki /di(支,智,至) | *** | ~ ji | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| excellent shooter (善射者) | jumong (朱蒙) Buyeo languages | *** | jəmə("noted bow") Jobe-Mergen("hunting expert") | tomo(shooter's equipment) yumi/yu("bow") | tomoe(emblem of tomo) yumi/yu | *** | *** | *** | ~mani("expert") | *** | *** | jolin-manga , julil-muəl(卓琳莽阿) | *** |
| gold | so (蘇) so-miuən/so-mun (蘇文) | *** | *** | saɸi1("cutlery,silver color") | sai sabi("rust") | so ) | so("gold") | *** | sö("metal") söh | *** | *** | sele("iron") šun("sun") | sigūn("sun") |
| silver | tʃiεt (折) tʃiεu-ʃιi/so-l (召尸) | *** | *** | ʦuʣu("Tin, tinworks") | suzu | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| lead | nəi-miuət namer (乃勿) | *** | *** | namari("lead") | namari | *** | *** | namɔr | nap/납 | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| recover territory (復舊土) | ta mul (多勿) | *** | *** | tamu("to return, to come around, to turn around") tamuk("to resist, to retaliate") | temuka | *** | *** | *** | taɕi ("again") tø- ("re-") muli(tsi)- ("repel") mol-("expel") | *** | *** | tabu-(to divide,to tear) | *** |
| north(back) | je (提) jwat (絶) ʣo-li (助利) 椽那部,提那部,絶奴部,後部 | arka("back") | hoina (Daur huainə) utara umara | tʃe>se("back") | se("back,height") | *** | *** | tuih | tui ("back, behind") | xama | *** | juleri("front, south") amargi amasi("back") | *** |
| south(front) | kuan (灌) (灌奴部) | kuzey,Ön(front) | *** | kasira("head,top") kaɸo("face") kan-("pre-") | kashira kao("look, face") kana-(叶:to serve,to get one's wish) | *** | arihi | *** | kət("surface, look") arp(front) | *** | *** | julergi | *** |
| east(left) | źwən/sun (順) (順奴部) | doğu,sol(left) | źeü , źegün | a-dʒuma/a-duma("east") | azuma | *** | *** | *** | wen("left") sae("east") | źun | *** | dergi | jun jəgin("left") |
| west(right) | yən (涓) (涓奴部) | batı | ürüne , barun | yom- (the mythological placename of world beyond) ini-si("west") | yomi("Hades") niʃi | *** | *** | *** | orɯn("right") parɯn("right") | xangid | *** | wargi | anŋū(right) |
| stone | *** | taš | cilaɣu(n) (Classical) culuu (Khalkha) šuluu(n) (Buryat) | isi | iʃi | turak | *** | tōlh | tōl tok(dialect) | *** | *** | tahan("steppingstones") | *** |
| rock, cliff (巌,峴,岑) | pa-・ιəi/pua-・ιəi pàI/pa'i (巴衣,波衣) pua-ɣei/paxe (波兮) | *** | *** | 岩#Noun / 巌#Noun mama("cliff") | iwao ("great rock, bedrock") | *** | *** | pahoy | pawi | pax（石・崖） (Nivkh) | *** | wehe | *** |
| land (壌,壤) | no 内/奴～弩/悩 nori 奴閭 | *** | ńurū | nu/no("land") na | no | no buri | nu¨～nu¨ri/nε bəl | *** | bəl nuri("world") | na ("land"） | na | na（土地）,noro(-n) | *** |
| nation | (nua) > na no 內,那,奴,惱 | ili | ulus(<*hulu-s<* bulu-s) | nu/na("land, nation") na | na | *** | *** | narah | nara | guru-n(< * buru-n) | guru-n(< * buru-n) | gurun | *** |
| walled city, fort, castle | kol / hol (忽) kuru / kolo (溝婁,屈, 骨) | qol-γan | küri-yen 'fence, hedge, device',/qol-γan | koɸori("brough, country") ki2("city") | kōri -ki | *** | *** | kolh | koɯl gol | kur ~kur ~kuran | *** | kuran~ kuren (城, 柵:"castle, citadl") golo（省:province) | *** |
| capital's names | cholbon(卒本) solbon(率本) puru-na(不耐,平壤) | cholpon("Venus") | čolbaŋ("Venus") | *** | *** | soburi | sərabəl səbəl | shəbɯl | seoul saet-piəl("Venus") | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| middle (中) | kabəl 加火 | *** | *** | kapi>kaɸi(卵"content,egg,result,worth") kapa>kaɸa("outside") | kai kawa("side") | *** | *** | kaβɔn 가ㅸㄴ | kaun(-de) -gaus/-aus("half") | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| so big, best | māk/mo (莫) ma (馬) makhara (莫何邏) | *** | *** | ma-(prefix to mean "real/great/true/perfect") | ma- | *** | *** | *** | mal-말 mat 맏("first;eldest;oldest") | maŋga ("strong") | *** | maŋga ("difficult; tough, strong; somewhat more, somewhat better") | maŋa ("strong") |
| tribal elder (太大兄) | makha-ha-raji (莫何何羅支/太大兄) ~ji/ki("title of honor") 兄 laji / haraji("patriarch") | *** | *** | ma- kakaɸu-(to undertake,to be under orders) -dati("patriarch") -kara("birth, parentage") ti("father") di("old guy,grandfather") | ma- kakaer-(hold) -dati("appearange") -kara("reason") ʨiʨi ʥiʥi -ʥi | *** | kak-kan kan-ki/kanji ~ji("title of honor") | *** | hara("grand") ~ji("title of honor") har-abə-ji("grand father") ~achi("legation staff's title") | *** | *** | mahala("hat, cap") makta-ra- ("to prise") | *** |
| leader ,chief | makli-ji/mori-ji (莫離支) ~ji("title of honor") | baš(head) | *** | ma- kur-i("to command, to manage") dʒi("old guy,grandfather") | ma- kuri- ʥi | *** | Marip-gan("king") Mae-kɯm("king") | maruha mari("head") | məri("head") | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| summit(峰) | süni (首泥) | *** | *** | sone1("stony and barren land") | *** | *** | *** | sunɯrk | tɕəŋsuri ("top of the head") | *** | *** | šun("sun") sukdun("air") | *** |
| mountain (山) | tat / tar (達) ma (馬) γap-ma (盒馬 : big mountain) | taγ（"mountain"） | aɣula(n) (Classical Mongolian) ūl (Khalkh) ūla (Buryat) aulə (Daur) | take2("peaks") yama("mountain") mure("mountain") tara | take yama | *** | 督 tɔrɔ(山), tara(多禮,多羅) ("land") | moyh(山) | me tang,tal("land") tuk("hill") orɯm (Jeju dialect) | *** | *** | alin tala("field") mulu("ridge of mountain") | *** |
| tree, wood | kil kιənul, naro? (斤乙) | i¨("forest")/i¨γac("tree") | *** | ki2/ ke2 ~ ko2("tree") ko2nara(a kind of beech) | ki konara | *** | *** | 斤:nal(訓)/kɯn | kɯru ("stump; unit for counting trees") namu 나무 ("tree; wood") | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| willow tree | yoɯɪn (要隠) | *** | *** | yana-ki2("willow tree") | yana-gi | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| bamboo | na (奈) | *** | *** | no2(bamboo arrow) si-no("running bamboo,bamboo grass") | no ʃino | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| pine tree(松) | busi/pιu-sie (夫斯) pιu-so (扶蘇) | *** | *** | matu("pine tree") pusi("fire wood") | maʦu ɸuʃi | bu(扶,負) so(蘇) | *** | sol（松）/pos（樺） | sol,sonamu | *** | *** | bahiya("pine cone") | *** |
| peach | pasi (波尸) | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | poksiəŋ (桃) | poksuŋ-a, poksa (桃) | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| garlic | mier (買尸) | *** | maŋgirsun(野蒜) | mi1ra("garlic") | nira ("garlic chives") | *** | *** | manʌl (蒜) | manɯl | *** | *** | maca ("garlic chives") | *** |
| grain | nabar /niəŋ-biuʌt 仍伐 | *** | *** | nape2>naɸe2("seedling") ina-ɸo（"ear of rice"） mi2（"fruit, seed, grain"） mame("grain") | nae inaho mame("bean") | *** | *** | *** | nuy（"grains of unhulled rice amongst hulled rice"） narak（"rice plant; unhulled rice; grain of rice") | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| root | tsʌm (斬) | *** | *** | tukene("root,knot,joint") | ʦukene | *** | pul?(根) | pulhuy(根) | ppuri | tʃamγ（根株） (Nivkh) | *** | da | *** |
| plow (犁) | ka-ʃιi (加尸) | kerci-（"to cut, to dig trenches"） | *** | kari("plow") kuɸa("hoe") | kari kuwa | *** | *** | karai（木[杴]・鍬, kal-（plow) kal（刀） | *** | gerbe-("break, snap") (Nanai) | *** | halhan（"hoe"）/halhan～halgan(犂[鏵]:"plow") | gerbe-("break, snap") |
| ax | ・ιo-sie, nərə-si (於斯) | *** | *** | wono2("ax") | ono | *** | *** | *odzgɔy (烏子蓋) ("ax") nɔlh ("blade") | nal ("blade") nas ("sickle; scythe") tōkki ("ax") | *** | *** | anjikū ("hatchet") | *** |
| basin (盆) | sʌl (西) | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | sora (盆) ("basin") | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| water (水) | mi (米) mie (買) moro (模盧) | *** | mören(江, 海) müren (沐漣) /moron (木連) (Khitanese) | mi1/mi1du/mi1n-("water") | miʣu | mi(彌) | *** | mɨl | mul | mu | mu 沒 | muke | mū("water") |
| spring water (泉(井)) | əɯl (於乙):井 iri (伊梨):泉 | bul-a-q/bul-a-γ("fountain, spring") | ɯs (水"water") | wi ("well; reservoir, irrigation pond") | i | *** | ɯl(乙) | umɯl ("well") | umul ("well") | eri～erri（"small river" 川） (Nivkh) | *** | üla ("large river" 江) | *** |
| dike (堤) | tu (吐) | töpü | *** | take2("higher hill") tutu-mi("dike") tu-(to stack,to pile,to gather) | take ʦuʦumi ʦu- | *** | *** | *** | əntək tuk(堤) | *** | *** | do-("to stop") | *** |
| pond | nemi / naymi (内米) | *** | namug ("marsh, swamp") | nami1 ("wave") | nami | mi(r)ji (蜜地,彌知) | *** | *** | ? nɛnmul ("stream") mos ("pond") nɯpʰ 늪 ("swamp") | namu, lamu ("sea, ocean; lake" 海) | *** | mūsa ("swamp") | *** |
| branch (派) | kai (改) | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | karʌi (派) | kalɛ (派) | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| river | kur (屈) na (那) | köl("lake") | *** | kaɸa("river") | kawa | nari(那利) 久麻那利 | *** | kɔrɔm nāyh | karam nɛː | *** | *** | ula | *** |
| sea | patan/padal/padan (波旦) pa-sia (波且) | *** | *** | wata("sea") | wada-ʦu-mi("gods of Sea") | *** | 波珍 padɔl | padah～parʌl | pada | *** | namu | namu | *** |
| cow | ʃιəu/*sü (首) | *** | *** | usi("cow") | uʃi | *** | *** | ʃyo/쇼 | so | *** | *** | eje("castrated cow") | *** |
| pig (猪) | u 烏 o-sie (烏斯) o-s^i¨ʌŋ (烏生) | *doŋuz > domuz | *** | usi ("ox; cattle") wi ("pig,boar") | i("boar") | *tɕo-nʲi (猪耳) | *** | totʰ 돝 | twɛːji, toyaji(dialect), tochi(dialect) | *** | *** | ulgiyan("pig") ulha("domestic animal") | *** |
| water deer | kosya (古斯也#Noun) | *** | *** | kuzika("deer") | kuzika | *** | *** | *** | korani("Manchurian elk") kōrɛŋi, korɛi (Gyeongsang dialect) | *** | *** | kandahan ("a kind of deer") | *** |
| horse | miel (滅) | *** | mori～muri | uma～muma("horse") | uma | *** | *** | ｍʌl/(馬) | mal | mori (Nanai) | *** | morin | *** |
| swan (鵠) | ko-ʏιəi (古衣) | qoγu | *** | kubi1>kukuɸi1("swan") | kukui/kugui("swan") | *** | *** | kohay kon | koni | *** | *** | gaha("bird, raven") gasha("big bird") | *** |
| bear | komok (功木) | *** | *** | kuma("bear") | kuma | koma | *** | kom | kōm | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| owl (鵂鶹) | ʦu (租) | *** | *** | tuku("owl") ʦu("nest") | ʦuku/mimi-dzuku su | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| rabbit | u-si-ɣam/o-sie-həm (烏斯含) | tawïsγan | *** | wosagi1/usagi1("rabbit") | usagi | *** | *** | thos-gi | tho-ggi | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| weasel (狌) | yia-ʃιi (也尸) | *** | *** | itatʃi(weasel) | itaʨi(weasel) | *** | *** | yezï ~ yezɣ- ("fox") | yəu ("fox") yəsi(dialect) | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| horn | tsιi-nyiak (次若) | *** | *** | tuno("horn") | ʦuno | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| wing | əji, nərəgi (於支) | *älig > el ("hand") | *** | tadamgi(arm) atʃi(foot,walk,rain,money) | aʃi | *** | *** | *** | narɛ, nalgɛ | *** | *** | asχa | *** |
| foot (足) | γuəi tor (廻) | *** | *** | kuw-("to kick") ko-yu("to get over") | ker- koe- | *** | *** | *** | tari | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| mouth | huət-ts‘ii/kuërtsi kútsi/kutui kolci (忽次) ko-ts‘ii (古次) kuan/kuen (串) | *** | 훌츠qurc(Khalka)("skewer, spit" 串) | kutu～kuti/kuti < *kutui("mouth") ko2to2（"word, speech, language"） | kuʨi koto | *** | *** | kʌl-(曰: "to say") koc ("skewer, spit; promontory" 串) | kulrε (Jeju dialect) kul (South Jeolla dialect) kar-(曰: "to say") | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| hair | təl(毛乙)>tiəl(鐵) | *** | *** | tar-u("trail, hang out") | tare-ru | *** | *** | *** | 毛:təl | *** | *** | tulə(ad:"to outside") | *** |
| tooth | kʌi-ʃιi (皆尸) | *** | *** | ki1 ("fang; tusk") | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| heart chest | kor/kιo-sιi (居尸) | göğüs | kökün | ko2ko2ro2("heart") koro("oneself") | kokoro | *** | *** | *** | kogäŋi ("core") / kasʰɯm ("chest, heart") | *** | *** | huhun (乳,乳房:"breast, bosom") | *** |
| transverse (横) | ・ιo-sie/*es (於斯) | *** | *** | yo2ko2("transverse") yo2k-("to traverse") | yoko yoker- | *** | *** | əs/엇 | ət | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| valley | tan/tuən/t‘ən (旦,頓,呑) | *** | *** | tani("valley") | tani | *** | *** | tʌn～tuʌn（"valley") təŋgɛ（"valley") | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| side edge | ka-(・a) (加阿) | kera | *** | kado1("side edge,jag") kari("edge") | kado kari | *** | *** | kʌs | kā | *** | *** | kaja-("to cut") huwesi-("cutter, small blade") | *** |
| ball (丸) | anʃi (安市) anʒip (安十) | *** | ənduhə (Daur) | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | al | (x)elū- | *** | umhan muheren | elū |
| layer (重) | biar/bιεt (別) | *** | *** | pe1>ɸe1("layer") | he("layer") | *** | *** | pʌl | *** | *** | *** | fe("ex-, past, former") | *** |
| neighbor (隣) | ιi-bιuʌt (伊伐) | *** | *** | ipa>ipe1>iɸe1("residences") | ie | *** | *** | ibɯt (隣) | iut (隣) | *** | *** | imiya-("to gather togather") | *** |
| frost | sat (薩) sat-ɣan/sal-han (薩寒) | *** | *** | simo("frost") sayi/seye zayi/zaye ("icicle, ice") | simo sae | *** | *** | səri | *** | *** | *** | juhe | *** |
| lush (菁) | ka-tʃιe (加支) | *** | *** | kati/katin("lush, dark blue") | kaʨi | *** | *** | *** | kəch-(蕪) kis- ("lush, overgrown with weeds, overrun with plants") | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| group, tribe | ul (于尸) | uruk ("clan") | ulus ("people, nation, tribe, horde") | uti("family, inside, home") udi ("tribe,clan,social status of one's family, lineage, birth, surname") | uʨi uʒi | *** | *** | ul（"relations; relatives; kinsfolk; clan"） uri ("we, us; the Korean people, Koreans") | *** | *** | *** | urse ("people") uce("entrance") | *** |
| mother | ya chi (也次) | Ana | *** | ya("home") ti("bosom") ɸaɸa("mother")/oya("parent") | haha, oya | *** | *** | 어ㅿㅣ əzi | 어미əmi 아매,에마 ame,ema(north dialect) | *** | eniyen | a ja | *** |
| baby | gu(仇) gιəu-sie / kus / kyus (仇斯) | koto("son"匈奴語) kız ("girl; daughter") O'gul | *** | ko1("baby") | kodomo("baby, child") | *** | *** | *** | koma(童) koma-(小-) | *** | omo | jui("kid") | kuŋa ("child") |
| writing literature (文) | kιən-ʃιi/kɯl (斤尸) | *** | *** | kak-("to write") kuk-/*kuru-("to form,to bind") | kak- kukur-/kurum- | *** | *** | kɯl | kɯl | *** | herse | hergen | *** |
| jade | kusi ko-ʃie (古斯) | *** | gas | kusiro2（"bracelet") | kuʃiro | *** | *** | kusɯl ("jewel") | *** | *** | γun | gu | *** |
| cool wind, clear wind | ʃa-nιet-ιi (沙熱伊) | *** | *** | same-("to cool") -ti("wind") | same- -ʨi | *** | *** | sanʌl("cool") -i("-wind") | sənɯl("cool") | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| hole (孔) | dzei-ts‘ii/tsei-ts‘ii (斉次/濟次) | *** | *** | tʃuk-("be off one's guard, to show through") tʃuki("chink, gap, vulnerable point") | suki | *** | *** | *** | t’ul-(透), tɯm（隙) | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| hole (穴) | kap (甲) kap-pii (甲比) | qapca（"gorge, ravine"）, qapi¨γ（"Gate"） | *** | kapi1>kaɸi1（"hole, gorge, narrow valley") | kubomi ("hole") | *** | *** | *** | kul (穴) | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| three | mir/mil (密) siet (悉) s^ïei (史) | bis(5) | gurav | mi1("3") | mi | *** | mil | sei/səih | 셋 sʰet̚ | *** | ilan | ilan | *** |
| five | uc/ütsi/uci/üc/uca/uchha (于次,弓次) | üç(3) | tabun | itu("5") | iʦu | *** | *** | tasul (打戌) | tasət 닷 tah | dügün | sunja | sunja | *** |
| seven | nan-・ιən nanin (難隠) nanən/nanun | Yeti | *** | nana("7") | nana | *** | *** | (n)ìlgɯp(一急) | (n)ìlgúp | nadan | nadan | nadan | *** |
| ten | tək/duk (德) | on toquz(9) | arav | to2/to2wo("10") | tō | *** | *** | *** | yəl(10) on(100) chɯmun(1000) | juwa | juwan | juwan | ʒuwan |
| hard | ma (馬) | *** | *** | ma- ("truly, really") | ma- | *** | *** | modir- | mōjir- ("harsh; severe; cruel") | *** | manga("hard") | maŋga("hard") | maŋa |
| high | dat/§ap/tar (達) | *** | *** | taka-/daka-（"high"） | taka-/daka | *** | *** | *** | tarak- ("high") tarak ("loft") | *** | *** | den ("high") dekde- ("to rise") | *** |
| rough | kuət-・ιəi (骨衣) | *** | *** | kata-("tough,firm") | katai("tough,stiff") | *** | ka¨cʰɔ¨l | kəcʰɯl- (荒) | *** | *** | *** | kata-("to become hard, to become rough") | *** |
| round (圓) | toŋ-pιuəi (冬非) | *** | *** | tubura("round") | tsubura | *** | *** | tuŋgɯl-（圓） | tuŋgɯl-（圓} | *** | *** | torho-("to roll,to circle") | *** |
| new | ʃιəu/*su (首) | *** | *** | zu("new, present, developing,a gleam") su-("fresh") sa-("young") | su- | *** | say | say (새) | sɛ | *** | iche | ice | *** |
| deep | bιuk-sie (伏斯) puk (伏) | *** | *** | puka-si>ɸuka-si("deep") | ɸuka-i | *** | *** | kiph u˙n | kiph- puk ("deeply, completely, fully") | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| flat, level,shallow | biri (比里) pii-lιεt (比烈) | biri | *** | pi1ra->ɸi1ra-("flat,level") pisi | hirata- hiʃi | *** | *** | *** | pʌl | *** | *** | ba("field, district") pile-("to confirm, to criticize") tehere-("to flat, to be equal") | *** |
| wide (廣) | nərə-si, ə-si (於斯) | *** | osy/esy 阿斯(寬大:gererous, tolerant) nalai | naras-u("roll,to level off") os-u("transcend, surpass") e-si("right,wide,noble,enough") | naras-u("to level off") os-u("to transcend, to press, to push") | *** | *** | 어위 (< *어쉬) | nəlb 넓- (廣) nəgɯrə (寬) ədzi (仁, 寬) | *** | očo 我撮(寬) | ončo(廣:wast) | *** |
| bent (曲) | kubəl (屈火) | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | kub- (曲-), kubɯl (曲) | *** | *** | *** | |
| black | kəmər/kəmhək(今勿) | Qara | *** | kuro1("black") | kuro | *** | *** | kəm-/검- | 검 kʌm | *** | *** | kara | *** |
| white | ʃιi-lap (尸臘) nə γei (奈兮) | Aq | *** | sira("white") siram- ("to become white") | ʃiro ʃiram- | *** | *** | ʃje-("to become white") hʌy-(白) | hʌy- hin hayan nun (雪) | *** | *** | šara-("to become white") šeyen("white") šanggiyan("white") | *** |
| red | s^a-bιuk/sa(i)puk (沙伏) s^a-pιuəi-kιən/sa(i)pikon 沙非斤 sapi | Qyzyl | *hulaɣan > ulaan | so2po>so2ɸo("red") | soho | supi(赤鳥) | sapi(泗沘) | sitpɯk(赤) | 붉은pulgɯn 시뻘건sippəlgən("deep red") | *** | *** | fulgiyan | *** |
| yellow | kuət (骨) kweyru | *** | *** | ki2-~ kú-("yellow") | ki(iro) | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | suwayan | *** |
| blue (靑) | sal sat (薩) | *** | *** | so1ra("sky") sumi1re("violet") | sora-iro sumire-iro | *** | səri 昔里 (靑) | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | |
| green (綠) | bιuʌt-lιək (伐力) puruk | *** | *** | mido("green") pa>ɸa("leaf") tura/tuta("vine") | midori ha ʦuru/ʦuta | *** | *** | phɯrɯn ("green, blue") | phurɯn ("green, blue") pharan ("blue") | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| to meet | pʌk/*pak (伯) | bak-（"to see, to look; to find"） | *** | pak->ɸak->*wakar-(分:"to separate") mak-("to obtain,to prepare,to make") | wakar-(判,解:"to judge, to understand") mōker- | *** | *** | poizʌp- ("to humbly show oneself, to meet (an honored person)") | po-（"to see, to look"）/ poyp-（"to have an audience with, to meet (an honored person)"） | *** | baka- ("to look for, to seek, to search") | baha-（"to get, to obtain"） | baka-（"to find"） |
| to swing | pu (釜) | *** | *** | pur->ɸur-("to swing,to shake") | ɸu- | *** | *** | *** | pudɯl-("tremble, shake") | *** | *** | *** | *** |
| to enter | ・ιi/*i (伊) | *** | ire- (to come) | ir-（"to enter"） | ir- | *** | *** | ip（口）/ip（門戸） | ir-(to arrive; to come) ip | i-（入） | *** | ibe-("to get forward") | *** |
| to get (取) | toŋ (冬) | *** | *** | tor-("to take, to get") | to- | *** | *** | *** | tɯl-("to take, to hold") | *** | *** | *** | *** |
Notes
Further reading
- Beckwith, C. I. (2004). Koguryo, the language of Japan's continental relatives: an introduction to the historical-comparative study of the Japanese Koguryoic languages with a preliminary description of Archaic northeastern Middle Chinese. Brill's Japanese studies library, v. 21. Boston: Brill. ISBN 9004139494
- Beckwith (2006). "Methodological Observations on Some Recent Studies of the Early Ethnolinguistic History of Korea and Vicinity." Altai Hakpo 2006, 16: 199-234.
- Beckwith (2006). "The Ethnolinguistic History of the Early Korean Peninsula Region: Japanese-Koguryoic and Other Languages in the Koguryo, Paekche, and Silla Kingdoms." Journal of Inner and East Asian Studies, 2006, Vol. 2-2: 34-64.
- Beckwith (2007): Koguryo, the Language of Japan's Continental Relatives: An Introduction to the Historical-Comparative Study of the Japanese-Koguryoic Languages, with a Preliminary Description of Archaic Northeastern Middle Chinese. Brill Academic Publishers, 2004. ISBN 90-04-13949-4. Second edition, 2007. ISBN 90-04-16025-5
- http://thomaspellard.ryukyu.googlepages.com/reviewKoguryro.pdf
See also
External links
Japanese
Korean
- Relationship between Koguryoan and other related languages
- Koguryoan Sillan and Paekchean words
- Additional Koguryoan and Old Japanese words
- The Korean language
English
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