Papp, Joseph, 1921-91, American theatrical director and producer, b. Brooklyn, N.Y. as Joseph Papirofsky. Papp, a major influence in American theater, founded the nonprofit New York Shakespeare Festival (now called Shakespeare in the Park) in 1954. He sought to make Shakespeare's works and other plays available to the public. In 1957 the city granted him a site in Central Park for free productions of Shakespeare, and a permanent theater for the project opened in 1962. Persevering and energetic, Papp also obtained (1967) from the city the Astor Library Building, where he produced plays, movies, and experimental works by new artists in the Public Theater (since 1992, the Joseph Papp Public Theater). Several of his productions, such as Hair (1967) and A Chorus Line (1975, Tony Award), moved to Broadway; the profits helped finance the Public Theater for many years. A strong advocate of creative freedom, Papp was an important promoter of off-Broadway theater and also did much to advance the careers of many fine actors and playwrights.

Jacobs, Joseph, 1854-1916, Jewish writer, historian, and folklorist, b. Australia. He lived in England until 1900, when he went to the United States to edit a revision of The Jewish Encyclopedia. He was later a teacher at the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York City and editor of the American Hebrew. His major contributions to Jewish history include Jews of Angevin England (1893), An Inquiry into the Sources of the History of the Jews in Spain (1894), and Jewish Contributions to Civilization (1919), an incomplete fragment. His Story of Geographical Discovery (1899) went through a number of editions. From 1889 to 1900 he edited Folk-Lore, the journal of the Folk-Lore Society. He compiled several collections of fairy tales and edited scholarly editions of Aesop's fables (1889) and the Thousand and One Nights (6 vol., 1896).

Soloveitchik, Joseph, 1903-93, Jewish Talmudist and philosopher. Born into a rabbinic family in Poland, he was educated according to his grandfather's analytical method of Talmud study and also earned a Ph.D. at the Univ. of Berlin in 1931. In 1932 he came to the United States where he became rabbi in Boston. In 1941 he succeeded his father as professor of Talmud at Yeshiva Univ., New York. In essays and especially in oral discourse, Soloveitchik stressed the need for halakah as a means of gaining mastery over one's own nature, as well as for drawing closer to God. As a teacher, and as chairman of the Halakah Commission of the Rabbinical Council of America, he exerted a large influence over mainstream Orthodox Jewry in America.

Brodsky, Joseph (Iosif Aleksandrovich Brodsky), 1940-96, Russian-American poet, b. Leningrad (St. Petersburg). A disciple of Anna Akhmatova, he began writing poetry in 1955. He was first denounced by the Soviet government (for "decadence and modernism," among other charges) in 1963 and was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1972. Brodsky emigrated to the United States, where he became a citizen, taught at several colleges, and continued to build a reputation as a distinguished literary figure. He became a master of the English language and wrote in it as well as Russian.

His poetry, which often treats themes of loss and exile, is highly regarded for its formal technique, depth, intensity, irony, and wit. Among his best known works are A Part of Speech (tr. 1980), a volume of poetry; Less than One (tr. 1986) and the posthumously published On Grief and Reason (1996), essays; and the English-language poems of To Urania (1988) and So Forth (1996). Later works include a play, Marbles (1989), and a book of prose, Watermark (1992). His Collected Poems in English was published in 2000.

The recipient of a MacArthur Award (1981), a National Book Award (1986), and many other honors, he won the 1987 Nobel Prize in Literature and was poet laureate of the United States (1991-92). A believer in the redemptive power of literature, he worked to make poetry accessible to a wider public.

Leidy, Joseph, 1823-91, American scientist, b. Philadelphia, grad. Univ. of Pennsylvania medical school. From 1853 he taught anatomy at his alma mater. He was also professor of natural history at Swarthmore College (1870-85) and served as chairman of the board of curators (1847-91) and president (1881-91) of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. He ranked among the foremost anatomists of the day, and his Elementary Treatise on Human Anatomy (1861) was long the best American textbook in the field. He studied the fossil beds in Nebraska and South Dakota and, later, in Wyoming and Oregon and classified the fossils collected by the F. V. Hayden survey. Three important monographs followed, Ancient Fauna of Nebraska (1853), Extinct Mammalian Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska (1869), and Contributions to the Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Western Territories (1873), all landmarks in American paleontology. He was the first to identify in the United States extinct species of the horse, camel, sloth, tiger, rhinoceros, and many other genera and species. His Flora and Fauna within Living Animals (1853) was epoch-making in the field of parasitology, and his Fresh Water Rhizopods of North America (1879), with his own notable drawings, is still one of the finest works in its field.

Priestley, Joseph, 1733-1804, English theologian and scientist. He prepared for the Presbyterian ministry and served several churches in England as pastor but gradually rejected orthodox Calvinism and adopted Unitarian views. He settled in London in 1765 and moved to Birmingham some years later. In both cities he became associated with some of the outstanding figures of his day, such as Benjamin Franklin, James Boswell, James Watt, Josiah Wedgwood, and Erasmus Darwin. Priestley's Essay on Government (1768) suggested the idea of "the greatest happiness of the greatest number" to Jeremy Bentham. In 1769 he founded the Theological Repository for critical discussion. In his History of Electricity (1767), he explained the rings (known as Priestley's rings) formed by a discharge upon a metallic surface. His improvements in the manipulation of gases enabled him to investigate the properties of gases and to discover new ones, including sulfur dioxide, ammonia, and what Priestley called "dephlogisticated air," the gas that Lavoisier named oxygen and made the basis of experiments that were the foundation of modern chemistry. Priestley himself, however, failed to realize the importance of his discovery of oxygen.

Priestley's Examination of Scottish Philosophy appeared in 1774; his History of the Corruptions of Christianity, published in 1782, was officially burned in 1785; and his History of Early Opinions concerning Jesus Christ appeared in 1786. In 1790 he wrote two volumes of a General History of the Christian Church to the Fall of the Western Empire, and four volumes of the later history of the church appeared between 1802 and 1803. In the meantime he pursued his scientific and philosophical studies; opposed orthodox doctrines, the government's colonial policy, and slave trade; advocated the repeal of the Test Act and Corporation Act; and carried on a seven-year controversy (1783-90) with the Rev. Samuel Horsley.

Priestley's sympathy with the aims of the French Revolution aroused popular prejudice against him, which led in 1791 to the wrecking of his house and the destruction of his library and scientific apparatus. Priestley emigrated to the United States in 1794 and lived at Northumberland, Pa., for the remainder of his life. He became friendly with many of the nation's founders, forming a particularly close tie with Thomas Jefferson, and continued his chemical experimentation, engaging in a controversy on the phlogiston theory with leading American chemists. Priestley, who was fluent in seven languages, wrote a total of nearly 500 books and pamphlets.

Eichendorff, Joseph, Freiherr von, 1788-1857, German poet, a leader of the late romantics. He studied law, volunteered in Lützow's corps in the Napoleonic Wars, and, as a civil servant in Berlin, associated with Schlegel, Arnim, Brentano, and other romantic poets. Eichendorff's lyric verse, in folk-song style, is notable for its highly personal expression of love of home and worship of nature. Much of it was set to music by Schumann, Mendelssohn, Brahms, Wolf, and many others. His prose is lyrical as well; Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts (1826, tr. Memoirs of a Good-for-Nothing, 1866) is filled with his romantic yearnings and poetic dreams. There are many translations of his poems, among them The Happy Wanderer and Other Poems (1925).

Pickett, Joseph, 1848-1918, American primitive painter, b. New Hope, Pa., where he lived all his life. He worked as a carpenter, canal-boat builder, and grocer. At about age 65, Pickett turned to painting. His best-known paintings exhibit a strong clarity of design and color; they are Manchester Valley (Mus. of Modern Art, New York City), Washington Under the Council Tree (Newark Mus., N.J.), and Coryell's Ferry, 1776 and Washington Taking Views (Whitney Mus., New York City).

Piłsudski, Joseph, Pol. Józef Piłsudski, 1867-1935, Polish general and politician. He was exiled (1887-92) to Siberia for an alleged attempt on the life of Czar Alexander III, who ruled a large section of Poland. On his return he joined the Polish Socialist party and began (1894) publication of the Robotnik [worker], a secret party organ. Again imprisoned in 1900, he soon escaped. Piłsudski, who subordinated social aims to national emancipation, struggled exclusively for Polish independence. To that end he organized various anti-Russian militant groups—notably, after the outbreak (1914) of World War I, the Polish Legions, which he commanded under Austrian sponsorship. When the Central Powers demanded extensive Polish mobilization in return for vague promises of independence, Piłsudski refused to give his support and was imprisoned (1917) at Magdeburg. Released in Nov., 1918, he returned to Warsaw, assumed command of the Polish armies, and proclaimed an independent Polish republic, which he headed. Meanwhile a more conservative Polish national committee, that had favored cooperation with the Allies in the war, had established itself at Paris and won Allied recognition. A compromise was reached in 1919, when Paderewski became premier while Piłsudski continued as chief of state. Piłsudski used force to expand the eastern frontier of Poland, and the peace treaty with Russia (see Riga, Treaty of, 1921) incorporated several million Ukrainians and White Russians into Poland. In accordance with the Polish constitution of 1921, Piłsudski surrendered (1922) his powers and soon retired to private life. Disagreeing with the policies of the Witos cabinet, he overthrew the government by a coup in 1926. As war minister he exercised a virtual dictatorship until his death. He also was premier from 1926 to 1928 and in 1930. The constitution of 1935 made a pretense of parliamentary democracy. Piłsudski's authoritarian regime was a military dictatorship with slight fascistic overtones, although it never was formalized as in fascist countries. His succession was assumed by a group of military men, among them Rydz-Smigly.

Hewes, Joseph, 1730-79, political leader in the American Revolution, signer of the Declaration of Independence, b. Kingston, N.J. He moved (1760) to Edenton, N.C., and became a wealthy merchant and shipper. As a member of the Continental Congress (1774-77), Hewes helped establish the American navy and obtained a commission for John Paul Jones in 1775. Reelected to Congress in 1779 he died during the session.

Hofmann, Joseph, 1876-1957, Polish-American pianist, b. near Cracow; pupil of Anton Rubinstein. He toured Europe as a child prodigy, making his American debut in 1887 at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York City. He was director (1926-38) of the Curtis Institute of Music, Philadelphia. He composed under the pseudonym Michel Dvorsky and was the first professional performer to make recordings of his performances.

Chamberlain, Joseph, 1836-1914, British statesman. After a successful business career, he entered local politics and won distinction as a reforming mayor of Birmingham (1873-76). Entering Parliament as a Liberal in 1876, Chamberlain advocated radical social reform and served under William Gladstone as president of the Board of Trade (1880-85). In 1886, however, he broke with Gladstone, leading the defection from the Liberal party of the Liberal Unionists (those Liberals who opposed Home Rule for Ireland). In 1887-88 he negotiated a treaty with the United States to settle the fisheries dispute between that country and Canada. Chamberlain became leader of the Liberal Unionists in the House of Commons in 1891, and in 1895 he joined the Conservative government as colonial secretary. While maintaining his interest in social reform at home, he pursued a vigorous colonial policy aimed at imperial expansion, cooperation, and consolidation. Although a parliamentary inquiry cleared him of complicity in the Jameson Raid (see Jameson, Sir Leander Starr), there is some evidence that he was at least aware of the conspiracy. His subsequent attempts to reach a settlement with the Boers failed, resulting in the South African War (1899-1902). After the war he worked for a conciliatory peace. Chamberlain's belief in the need for closer imperial union led him to espouse the cause of imperial preference in tariffs. However, this proposed abandonment of Great Britain's traditional free trade policy provoked great controversy, and in 1903 he resigned from office to spend three years in an attempt, through the Tariff Reform League, to convert the country to his views. His campaign split the Liberal Unionist-Conservative bloc and contributed to its defeat in the election of 1906. Ill health ended Chamberlain's public life in 1906, but his tariff policy was adopted (1919, 1932) within the lifetime of his sons, Austen and Neville.

Dennie, Joseph, 1768-1812, American Federalist journalist, b. Boston. As editor, he made the Farmer's Weekly Museum at Walpole, N.H., an influential paper, particularly because of the "Lay Preacher" essays he wrote and printed in it. In Philadelphia he founded the Port Folio, which became a leading literary weekly, and edited it under the pseudonym Oliver Oldschool, Esq., from 1801 to 1812. In the Port Folio Dennie attacked Jefferson so violently that he was tried for seditious libel in 1805 but was acquitted. Dennie's "Lay Preacher" essays were published in two collections (1796-1817); both editions were published in one volume by H. M. Ellis in 1943.

Warren, Joseph, 1741-75, political leader in the American Revolution, b. Roxbury, Mass. A Boston physician, he participated in the agitation against the Stamp Act (1765). He became a member of the Boston Committee of Safety and in 1774 drafted the Suffolk Resolves, advocating forcible resistance to the British; they were endorsed by the Continental Congress. On the night of Apr. 18, 1775, he dispatched William Dawes and Paul Revere to warn Sam Adams and John Hancock that the British were marching on Concord. Warren was killed in the battle of Bunker Hill (1775).

Warton, Joseph, 1722-1800, English critic and poet, brother of Thomas Warton. Educated at Winchester and Oxford, he took holy orders in 1744 and served several cures. He spent an unsuccessful tenure as headmaster at Winchester, resigning in 1793. In London he met Samuel Johnson and became part of Johnson's literary group. His poems show a preference for the primitive over the civilized life. The Enthusiast (1744) and his subsequent volume of odes (1746) are early examples of romantic nature poetry. His chief work was his Essay on the Genius and Writings of Pope (2 vol., 1756 and 1782). Though an admirer of Pope, he criticized the classical tendencies of 18th-century poetry and longed for a revival of imagination and passion. He edited a nine-volume edition of Pope in 1797.

Losey, Joseph, 1909-84, American film director, b. La Crosse, Wis. Among his Hollywood works, many of which dealt with social issues, are The Boy With Green Hair (1948) and M (1951). Losey was blacklisted in Hollywood because of alleged Communist sympathies and left for England in 1952. In collaboration with writer Harold Pinter, he directed films about corruption and morality, including The Servant (1963), Accident (1967), and The Go-Between (1970). His other films include King and Country (1964), A Doll's House (1973), and Steaming (1985).

Jefferson, Joseph, 1829-1905, American actor. He was the foremost of an old and distinguished family of English and American actors. Jefferson began his stage career as a child actor, and when the family's fortunes declined, joined them as one of a group of strolling players traveling throughout the Midwest. His fame came with his creation of the role of Rip Van Winkle in a dramatization of Washington Irving's story, first in 1859 and later in 1865 as revised by Dion Boucicault. He performed the second version almost exclusively until 1880. He skillfully mixed humor with pathos, infusing the character with human tenderness and dignity, heightening the "fairy-tale" elements of the play, and ultimately creating the 19th-century's most popular male character. Almost as famous was his interpretation of Bob Acres in The Rivals, a part he played hundreds of times. He was one of the first star actors in America to establish his own road company; the earlier practice was to depend for support on local stock companies. Jefferson was also a landscape painter and was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. In 1893 he succeeded Edwin Booth as president of the Players' Club, thus becoming the recognized dean of his profession. He retired in 1904.

Jellachich de Buzim, Joseph, Count, 1801-59, Austrian general, a Croatian nobleman. He was governor of Croatia when the revolution of 1848 broke out in Hungary, and he commanded an army against the revolutionists. His purpose was to separate Croatia from Hungary, and he was backed by the Austrian government. After the fall (1849) of the Hungarian revolutionary government of Kossuth, Jellachich was again governor of Croatia, which remained a part of Hungary.

Joachim, Joseph, 1831-1907, Hungarian violinist; friend of Mendelssohn, Brahms, and Schumann. In his long career his performances of violin masterpieces came to be accepted as models. Joachim was concertmaster under Liszt at Weimar, 1849-53; later he became (1868) musical director of the Berlin Hochschule. The Joachim quartet, which he founded in 1869, presented the conservative quartet repertory of the 19th cent. in definitive interpretations. He composed cadenzas for the violin concertos of Beethoven and Brahms.

Grimaldi, Joseph, 1779-1837, English pantomime actor and clown. He made his debut at the age of three in Robinson Crusoe at Sadler's Wells, London. For many years he performed there and at Drury Lane. By the time he played the clown in his production of Mother Goose at Covent Garden in 1806, he was a legend. The songs he made famous were sung long after his death at the insistence of the gallery.

Lancaster, Joseph, 1778-1838, English educator. In 1801 he founded a free elementary school, using a type of monitorial system for which he acknowledged his debt to Andrew Bell. The Royal Lancasterian Society was later established (1808) to direct the school. However, Lancaster, embittered by controversy with the society and with Bell, whose system had the support of the established church—Lancaster was a Quaker—went to the United States in 1818 to lecture. His efforts to establish a school at Baltimore were ended by his failing health. He moved to Venezuela, and later to Canada and New York City, to promote his educational ideas. Although Lancaster's ideas were generally well received during those journeys, he was unable to establish another school outside England. His writings on his system include Report of Joseph Lancaster's Progress from 1798 (1810) and The Lancasterian System of Education (1821).

Lane, Joseph, 1801-81, American general in the Mexican War and territorial governor of Oregon, b. Buncombe co., N.C. In the Mexican War he commanded a brigade under Gen. Zachary Taylor at Buena Vista, later received a brevet major generalship for his gallantry in action, and emerged one of the heroes of the war. In 1848 he was commissioned governor of the newly organized Oregon Territory and superintendent of Indian affairs there. Arriving in Mar., 1849, he traveled through the territory settling matters between natives and whites. He prepared for Congress one of the most complete reports on record of the Native Americans of the region. After resigning as governor in 1850, he became territorial delegate to the U.S. Congress (1851-59) and later served (1859-61) as one of Oregon's first U.S. Senators. In 1853 he led the settlers against the indigenous people of the Rogue region, defeated them, and concluded a peace treaty. He was known for his prosecessionist position. In 1860, he ran for vice president on J. C. Breckinridge's ticket.

Addison, Joseph, 1672-1719, English essayist, poet, and statesman. He was educated at Charterhouse, where he was a classmate of Richard Steele, and at Oxford, where he became a distinguished classical scholar. His travels on the Continent from 1699 to 1703 were recorded in Remarks on Italy (1705). Addison first achieved prominence with The Campaign (1704), an epic celebrating the victory of Marlborough at Blenheim. The poem was commissioned by Lord Halifax, and its great success resulted in Addison's appointment in 1705 as undersecretary of state and in 1709 as secretary to the lord lieutenant of Ireland. He also held a seat in Parliament from 1708 until his death. Addison's most enduring fame was achieved as an essayist. In 1710 he began his contributions to the Tatler, which Richard Steele had founded in 1709. He continued to write for successive publications, including the Spectator (1711-12), the Guardian (1713), and the new Spectator (1714). His contributions to these periodicals raised the English essay to a degree of technical perfection never before achieved and perhaps never since surpassed. In a prose style marked by simplicity, order, and precision, he sought to engage men's thoughts toward reason, moderation, and a harmonious life. His works also include an opera libretto, Rosamund (1707); a prose comedy, The Drummer (1716); and a neoclassical tragedy, Cato (1713), which had an immense success in its own time, but has since been regarded as artificial and sententious. In his last years Addison received his greatest prominence. In 1717 he was made secretary of state, an office he resigned the following year. But the period (1714-19) was also marked by failing health, a supposedly unhappy marriage, and the severing of his relations with his good friend Richard Steele.

Reed, Joseph, 1741-85, American Revolutionary political leader and army officer, b. Trenton, N.J. He studied law, was admitted (1763) to the bar, and then went to London to study at the Middle Temple. After returning (1765) to practice law in Trenton, he took an active part in pre-Revolutionary affairs. After settling (1770) in Philadelphia Reed became a member of the committee of correspondence (1774) and president of the Pennsylvania provincial congress (1775). In the war he served as military secretary to George Washington and as adjutant general and took part in a number of battles. He served in the Continental Congress (1777-78). As president (1778-81) of the supreme executive council of Pennsylvania he abolished slavery in Pennsylvania and caused (1778) Benedict Arnold to be prosecuted on charges of corrupt practices. He was a trustee and founder of the Univ. of the State of Pennsylvania (later the Univ. of Pennsylvania).

Reinach, Joseph, 1856-1921, French publicist and lawyer. An associate of Léon Gambetta, he waged (1889) a campaign against General Boulanger in the journal République française. He was elected a deputy in the same year, but lost his seat in 1898 as a result of his pro-Dreyfus campaign (which was the more courageous because Reinach himself was a Jew) in the Dreyfus Affair. He was again a deputy from 1906 to 1914. During World War I he wrote widely praised military articles for Le Figaro. He also wrote Histoire de l'affaire Dreyfus (7 vol., 1901-11).

Fouché, Joseph, b. 1759 or 1763, d. 1820, French revolutionary and minister of police. A teacher in the schools of the Oratorian order, he joined the French Revolution and was elected to the Convention (1792). There he sided at first with the Girondists, but then became a Jacobin. As a Jacobin, he supported the Reign of Terror and assisted Jean Collot d'Herbois in the ruthless massacre (1793) of the counterrevolutionists in Lyons. He was instrumental in the overthrow of Maximilien Robespierre (1794), was envoy to Milan and The Hague (1798), and became minister of police (1799). Always an opportunist, he closed the Jacobin clubs and helped Napoleon Bonaparte's coup of 18 Brumaire (Nov. 9-10, 1799). As police minister under the Consulate, he organized a ruthlessly efficient spy system, but his opposition to Napoleon's being made first consul for life caused his dismissal (1802). He was, however, made a senator and continued to maintain an unofficial espionage system. He discovered the Cadoudal plot (1804) and was reappointed police minister in the same year. One of the indispensable men of the Napoleonic empire, Fouché is sometimes considered the father of the modern police state; nevertheless, his reforms of the criminal police were a lasting achievement. In 1809 he was created duke of Otranto as reward for his defense of Antwerp during Napoleon's absence in Austria. Shortly afterward, he entered into an intrigue with the English against Napoleon. Dismissed again (1810), he fled to Italy but soon afterward returned. In 1813, Napoleon made him governor of Illyria, and in 1814-15 he served both Napoleon and King Louis XVIII. After the second Bourbon restoration he was forced out of office and was sent as ambassador to Saxony. Shortly afterward, he was proscribed as a regicide, was exiled, and died in obscurity in Trieste.

Radetzky or Radetzki, Joseph, Graf Radetzky de Radetz, 1766-1858, Austrian field marshal. In the war of 1848-49 against Sardinia (see Risorgimento) he won the brilliant victories of Custozza (1848) and Novara (1849). He was governor of Upper Italy (1849-57). Johann Strauss (the elder) composed the famous Radetzky March in his honor.

Paul-Boncour, Joseph, 1873-1972, French statesman. Although a Socialist, he remained independent of party ties from 1931 to 1945. He was permanent French delegate to the League of Nations (1932-36), was briefly premier (1932-33), and held several cabinet posts, notably the foreign ministry (1933-34, 1936, 1938). He voted (1940) against granting full powers to Marshal Pétain. In 1945 he was a delegate to the conference at San Francisco to draw up a charter for the United Nations. Paul-Boncour long advocated disarmament and an international police force as the sole effective means of preserving peace. His personal Recollections of the Third Republic (tr. 1958) is a political memoir.

Holt, Joseph, 1807-94, American public official, judge advocate general of the U.S. army (1862-75), b. Breckinridge co., Ky. He became a widely known lawyer and political speaker in the old Southwest. For his services to the Democratic party, President Buchanan appointed him commissioner of patents in 1857, and in 1859 he became Postmaster General. He was Secretary of War from January to Mar., 1861. After the secession movement began, Holt, previously sympathetic to the South, gave unhesitating allegiance to the Union. Appointed (Sept., 1862) to the new office of judge advocate general, Holt supported and carried out President Lincoln's desire for an extension of military jurisdiction over many civil matters, including the trials of political prisoners. The trial and punishment of John Wilkes Booth's accomplices, however, especially the hanging of Mary E. Surratt, on questionable evidence and with evidence favorable to the defendants suppressed, brought a reaction against Holt and the power he had assumed. However, the radical Republicans in Congress kept him in office until 1875.

Hooker, Joseph, 1814-79, Union general in the American Civil War, b. Hadley, Mass. After fighting the Seminole and serving in the Mexican War, Hooker resigned from the army in 1853 and was for several years a farmer in California. At the outbreak of the Civil War he became a brigadier general of volunteers. He distinguished himself in subordinate commands in the Peninsular campaign, at the second battle of Bull Run, and in the Antietam campaign, and was made a brigadier general in the regular army in Sept., 1862. After the battle of Fredericksburg, Hooker severely criticized Ambrose Burnside, whom he succeeded (Jan., 1863) in command of the Army of the Potomac. In Apr., 1863, he advanced against Robert E. Lee, but in the resulting battle of Chancellorsville, he failed to justify his nickname of "Fighting Joe." Hooker followed Lee closely in the subsequent Confederate invasion of Pennsylvania, but, angered at General Halleck's refusal to send him reinforcements from Harpers Ferry, he asked on June 28, 1863, to be relieved. Hooker ably commanded reinforcements from the East in the Chattanooga campaign, and in 1864 he fought in the Atlanta campaign until General Sherman passed him over as successor to John B. McPherson.

Hopkinson, Joseph, 1770-1842, American jurist, b. Philadelphia; son of Francis Hopkinson. A successful lawyer, he helped to defend (1804) Justice Samuel Chase in impeachment proceedings and was associated with Daniel Webster in the Dartmouth College Case; he was also a Federalist Congressman (1815-19) and a federal judge. He is mainly remembered as the author (1798) of the words of Hail, Columbia.

Beuys, Joseph, 1921-86, German artist, b. Krefeld; one of the most influential of postmodern artists. Drafted into the Luftwaffe during World War II, he was wounded several times and in 1943 was shot down over Crimea. Nearly frozen, he was found by Tatar nomads who saved his life by wrapping him in felt and fur—materials that he later often used in his work and that assumed iconic, life-affirming stature in it. He studied (1947-51) and later taught at the State Art Academy in Düsseldorf, where he was (1961-72) professor of sculpture. A member of the neo-Dada group Fluxus during the early 1960s, Beuys pioneered certain ritualized latter-day happenings that he called Actions; they were among the first contemporary examples of performance art. Later in the 1960s he and his art turned toward left-wing politics; he was a founder (1967) of the German Students party and a Green party activist in the 1970s.

With his room-filling temporary constructions, Beuys also pioneered the movement that led to installation art. In his installations and other sculptural work Beuys included such elements as food, dead animals, wire, wood, cloth, automobiles, musical instruments, scraps of various materials, and many other likely and unlikely objects. In these unconventional, often obsessional, and sometimes disturbing pieces and in his many drawings and posters, Beuys rejected abstract art in favor of an aesthetic that relied heavily on his own experience and that elevated subject matter to utmost importance. Thematically, he was apt to touch on such issues as the environment, politics, and humanity's relationship with nature. Famous in the international art world by the 1970s, Beuys had an important impact on an emerging group of avant-garde artists, first in Europe and later in the United States.

Silverman, Joseph, 1860-1930, American rabbi, b. Cincinnati. He was a rabbi at Dallas, Tex. (1884-85), at Galveston (1885-88), and at the Temple Emanu-El, New York City (1888-1922). He was president (1900-1903) of the Central Conference of American Rabbis and was founder and president of the Emanu-El Brotherhood. He wrote A Catechism on Judaism (1886), made numerous contributions to periodicals, and was active in Zionist work.

Needham, Joseph, 1900-1995, British biochemist, historian of science, and sinologist, b. London. He had a lifelong association with Cambridge, where he was educated (Ph.D. 1924), taught biochemistry (1924-66), served as master of Gonville and Caius College (1966-76), and founded and directed the Needham Research Institute (1976-90). An embryologist, he wrote such books as Chemical Embryology (3 vol., 1931) and A History of Embryology (1934). Fascinated with all things Chinese, he learned Mandarin and headed (1942-46) the Sino-British Science Cooperation Office in Chongqing, China. After World War II he served (1946-48) as UNESCO's director of natural sciences. Needham wrote more than a dozen books, but by far his greatest achievement is the monumental Science and Civilization in China (7 vol., 1954-), a study of the history of Chinese science and technology and their relation to China's culture and society that was complete through its sixth volume at his death.

Cornell, Joseph, American artist, 1903-72, b. Nyack, N.Y. Cornell is best known for his surrealist-flavored shadow boxes. These are relatively small constructions, within glass-fronted shallow boxes or frames, made of a wide variety of found objects, maps, photographs, engravings, and other materials. The Cornell boxes possess a unique visual magic, and their selection and arrangement are extraordinarily evocative and filled with personal symbolism. Hôtel du Nord (c.1953; Whitney Mus., New York City) is a representative work.

Ritson, Joseph, 1752-1803, English antiquarian and scholar, b. Stockton-on-Tees. An industrious student of English literature, he attacked Thomas Warton's scholarship in Observations on Warton's History (1782) and disputed the originality of Bishop Percy's Reliques. He criticized Dr. Johnson, George Steevens, and Malone as editors of Shakespeare, and in 1802 he compiled a catalog of English poets from the 12th to the 16th cent.

Sabin, Joseph, 1821-81, American bibliophile, b. England. Sabin came to the United States in 1848 and established himself as a dealer in rare books in New York City and Philadelphia. He published the American Bibliophilist (1869-75), Bibliography of Bibliography (1877), and Bibliotheca Americana, better known as A Dictionary of Books Relating to America (begun in 1868 and continued by others after his death until 1892).

Pulitzer, Joseph, 1847-1911, American newspaper publisher and politician, b. Hungary. He emigrated to the United States in 1864, served a year in the Union army in the Civil War, and became a journalist on the Westliche Post, a German-language newspaper. In 1869 he was elected to the Missouri legislature, where he earned a reputation as a liberal reformer. As owner and publisher after 1878, he made the St. Louis Post-Dispatch a successful paper.

In 1883 he bought the New York World from Jay Gould. Pulitzer's aggressive methods of building up this paper, its Sunday issue, and the Evening World (started 1887) included the use of illustrations, news stunts, crusades against corruption, and cartoons, as well as aggressive news coverage. William Randolph Hearst established his New York Journal in 1895 to vie with Pulitzer's papers in sensationalism and in circulation. The ensuing contest, with its banner headlines, lavish pictures, emotional exploitation of news—in short, "yellow journalism"—reached notorious heights in the treatment of the Spanish-American War. Later the World became more restrained and the outstanding Democratic organ in the United States, although it sometimes opposed party policies.

In 1885, Pulitzer was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he served briefly. After 1890 partial blindness kept Pulitzer from the editorial offices, but he directed his papers no less closely than before. He left funds to found what is now the graduate school of journalism at Columbia Univ. and endowed the Pulitzer Prizes.

In 1931, Pulitzer's sons, Ralph (1879-1939) and Joseph (1885-1955), sold the New York papers to the Scripps-Howard chain, and the Evening World was merged with the New York Telegram. The Post-Dispatch, under his son Joseph and then under his grandson Joseph Pulitzer (1913-93), was cited repeatedly for outstanding journalism and public service. Its editorial page maintained the Pulitzer tradition of independent liberalism.

Bédier, Joseph, 1864-1938, French authority on medieval literature. He was professor at the Collège de France and a member of the French Academy. His reconstruction, in modern French, of the Roman de Tristan et Iseult (1900) brought him fame for its scholarship and beauty. His theory of the origin of the medieval epic, developed in Les Légendes épiques (4 vol., 1908-13), was widely accepted until recent years.

Bellamy, Joseph, 1719-90, New England clergyman, b. Cheshire, Conn. A follower of Jonathan Edwards and a powerful revivalist of the Great Awakening, he preached in Bethlehem, Conn., for 52 years. Bellamy wrote True Religion Delineated (1750) and pamphlets in opposition to the Half-Way Covenant.

Joseph, Saint, husband of the Virgin Mary, a carpenter, a descendant of the house of David. He was apparently dead at the time of the Passion, for his last appearance in the Gospels is at the finding of the 12-year-old Jesus in the temple (Luke 2.42-50). As the foster father of Jesus and the chaste spouse of Mary, St. Joseph is highly honored by Orthodox and Roman Catholics. The latter regard him as patron of the Church. Feast: Mar. 19; another feast, the Solemnity of St. Joseph: third Wednesday after Easter.

Joseph, 1714-77, king of Portugal (1750-77), son and successor of John V. Little inclined to rule, his reign was dominated by his minister, the marquěs de Pombal. After Lisbon was partially destroyed (1755) by an earthquake and a tsunami, Pombal gained emergency powers and quickly rose in importance. He was supported by Joseph, who allowed Pombal to rule the country in fact if not in title. Joseph was succeeded at his death by his daughter, Maria I, and Peter III.

Joseph, one of the heroes of the patriarchal narratives of the Book of Genesis. He is presented as the favored son of Jacob and Rachel, sold as a boy into slavery by his brothers, who were jealous of Joseph's dreams and of his coat of many colors given him by Jacob. In Egypt, Joseph gained a position of authority in the household of his master, Potiphar, and was later imprisoned on the false accusations of Potiphar's wife. He was released after interpreting Pharaoh's dream of the lean and fat cows. Pharaoh renamed him Zaphnath-paaneah and took him into favor. Joseph's recognition of his brothers in the famine years when he was governor over Egypt is a famous scene. His wife was Asenath, an Egyptian, and their sons Manasseh and Ephraim were eponymous ancestors of two of the 12 tribes of Israel. The Joseph saga bridges the era of the patriarchs in Canaan and the Hebrews in Egypt. The mention of Joseph's marriage to Asenath in the Book of Genesis is the subject of Joseph and Asenath, now classified among the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. The Joseph story is retold in the Qur'an.

Joseph (Chief Joseph), c.1840-1904, chief of a group of Nez Percé. On his father's death in 1871, Joseph became leader of one of the groups that refused to leave the land ceded to the United States by the fraudulently obtained treaty of 1863. Faced with forcible removal (1877), Joseph and the other nontreaty chiefs prepared to leave peacefully for the reservation. Misinformed about the intentions of the Nez Percé, Gen. Oliver Otis Howard ordered an attack, which the Native Americans repulsed. Pursued by the U.S. army, the warriors, with many women and children, began a masterly retreat to Canada of more than 1,000 mi (1,609 km). The Nez Percé won several engagements, notably one at Big Hole, Mont., but 30 mi (48 km) short of the Canadian border they were trapped in a cul-de-sac by troops under Gen. Nelson A. Miles and forced to surrender. His eloquent surrender speech is one of the best-known Native American statements. The whites had assumed that Joseph, spokesman for the tribe in peacetime, was responsible for their outstanding strategy and tactics, which actually had been agreed upon in council by all the chiefs. He became, however, a symbol of the heroic, fighting retreat of the Nez Percés. He was taken to Fort Leavenworth, then spent the remainder of his life on the Colville Indian Reservation in the state of Washington and strove to improve the conditions of his people. In 1903 he made a ceremonial visit to Washington, D.C.

Joseph, Father (François Leclerc du Tremblay), 1577-1638, French Capuchin monk, a confidant and agent of Cardinal Richelieu, generally known as the Éminence Grise [gray eminence]. Combining the elements of a mystic and of a Machiavellian politician, he devoted his life with equal energy to missionary work and to the shady and delicate diplomatic negotiations with which Richelieu entrusted him. He dreamed of a crusade against the Turks and of the restoration of Roman Catholicism throughout Europe, yet he lent his services to a policy that strengthened Protestantism and the Ottoman Empire at the expense of the Catholic house of Hapsburg. Rumors ascribed to him an evil influence over the cardinal. It is more likely, however, that Father Joseph was a pliable instrument in the cardinal's hands and that his influence on the events that led to the entry of France into the Thirty Years War has been vastly exaggerated. Unlike his master, Father Joseph sought no material rewards. He is the subject of a study by Aldous Huxley, Grey Eminence (1941, repr. 1969).

Joubert, Joseph, 1754-1824, French moralist. His Pensées (of which there are many English translations) rank with those of La Rochefoucauld in their finished style but have a greater range, including ethics, politics, theology, and literature.

Roth, Joseph or Józef, 1894-1939, Austrian novelist, essayist, journalist, and publisherb. Brody, Galicia. An outspoken critic of Hitler and militarism, he moved to Paris in 1933. Roth became one of Europe's leading journalists in the era between the World Wars. His novels, though basically conservative, reflect political awareness and skepticism. They include Hotel Savoy (1924, tr. 1986), Rebellion (1924, tr. 1999), and Die Flucht ohne Ende (1927; tr. Flight without End, 1930, 1977). His best-known novels are Hiob (1930; tr. Job, 1933), concerning the struggle of Eastern European Jews, and Radetzkymarsch (1932; tr. The Radetzky March, 1933, 1974, 1985), an ironic portrait of the decline of the Austro-Hungarian Empire that is generally considered his masterpiece. Roth's Collected Stories and a collection of his essays on Berlin (1920-33) were published in English in 2002, as were his Parisian essays (1925-39) in 2004.

Glanvill or Glanvil, Joseph, 1636-80, English clergyman and philosopher. He was chaplain in ordinary to Charles II and prebendary of Worcester Cathedral. An exponent of occasionalism and precursor to Hume, Glanvill sought to prove the inefficacy of all secondary causes, which he regarded as merely the occasion of the activity of the first cause, God. This idea was presented in The Vanity of Dogmatizing (1661), recast as Scepsis scientifica (1665). Although in later life Glanvill attested to a belief in witchcraft, his appreciation of the scientific method is evidenced by Plus Ultra; or, The Progress and Advancement of Knowledge since the Days of Aristotle (1668).

Arch, Joseph, 1826-1919, English labor leader, a Primitive Methodist preacher. He founded the National Agricultural Labourers Union in 1872 and became its president. In 1873, Arch visited Canada and the United States to study labor and immigration problems. He served (1885-86, 1892-1900) as one of the first labor members in Parliament and was instrumental in enfranchising agricultural workers.

Alsop, Joseph, 1910-89, and Alsop, Stewart, 1914-74, American political journalists, b. Avon, Conn. Joseph joined (1932) the New York Herald Tribune as a staff reporter and moved (1936) to its Washington, D.C., bureau. His Washington political column, written (1937-40) with Robert E. Kintner under the title "The Capital Parade," was later renamed "Matter of Fact." After World War II, Joseph resumed the column, writing it with his brother Stewart from 1946 to 1958. Stewart went on to write for the Saturday Evening Post and Newsweek. When Joseph retired (1974), the column was believed to be the longest-running nationally syndicated opinion column, appearing thrice weekly in 300 newspapers. Although consistently anti-Soviet, the column expressed opposition to Senator Joe McCarthy's "Red scare" tactics. Stewart described himself and his brother as "very square, New Deal liberals." Joseph was a conservative on foreign issues and supported the war against Vietnam.

Ames, Joseph, 1689-1759, English bibliographer. He compiled Typographical Antiquities (1749), a valuable list of English books printed before 1600.

Amiot, Joseph: see Amyot, Joseph.

Hawley, Joseph, 1723-88, political leader in the American Revolution, b. Northampton, Mass. He was a leader of the opposition to the revivalist preaching of Jonathan Edwards and helped bring about Edwards's dismissal from his Northampton church. A lawyer, he served in the General Court of Massachusetts, where he became prominent in the struggle for political freedom before the Revolution. A leader of pre-Revolutionary activities in W Massachusetts, he was a strong supporter and frequent correspondent of John Adams.

Heller, Joseph, 1923-99, American writer, b. Brooklyn, N.Y. Heller is best known for his first novel, Catch-22 (1961). Set in World War II, it is a darkly humorous commentary on the illogic of war and bureaucracy. The title, which refers to an inescapable double bind, has entered the language. Heller dramatized his novel in 1971 and published a sequel, Closing Time, in 1994. His other works include the play We Bombed in New Haven (1967); the novels Something Happened (1974), Good As Gold (1979), God Knows (1984), and Picture This (1989); and the memoir Now and Then (1998). From his earliest writing days to his later career, Heller has also written short stores, many of them included in the collection Catch as Catch Can (2003).

Amyot or Amiot, Joseph, 1718-1794?, French Roman Catholic missionary in China, a Jesuit. He wrote a long treatise on the history, sciences, and customs of the Chinese (15 vol., 1776-89). He was one of the first Europeans to make Chinese literature, antiquities, and customs known to Europe. He was an early authority on the Manchu language.

Howe, Joseph, 1804-73, Canadian journalist and political leader, b. Halifax, N.S. In 1828, Howe became proprietor and editor of the Nova Scotian, which under his direction became the leading journal of the province. In 1836 he entered the provincial assembly and assumed leadership of his reform party; there and in his newspaper he continued his campaign for responsible government until the demands of his reform party were granted in 1848. From 1848 to 1854 he was provincial secretary; from 1860 to 1863 he was premier. Howe worked ardently for education and for an intercolonial railroad to link the Maritime Provinces with Canada proper. Although an early advocate of union, he opposed confederation. Even after confederation had been achieved (1867) he continued his opposition, but realizing the hopelessness of his position, he entered (1869) John Macdonald's dominion cabinet as president of the council, losing by this act many of his supporters in Nova Scotia. When he retired in 1873 to accept appointment as lieutenant governor of Nova Scotia, his homecoming was marked by little enthusiasm. He died soon after assuming office.

Hume, Joseph, 1777-1855, English politician and reformer. Although a Tory in early life, he sat in Parliament from 1818 to 1855 (with only one interruption) as an indefatigable Radical. Hume was a leader in almost all the reform issues of the day. He fought for repeal of the Combination Acts (laws against the nascent labor unions) and for Catholic Emancipation, financial retrenchment, parliamentary reform, freedom of the press, free trade, colonial self-government, and disestablishment of the Church of Ireland.

Conrad, Joseph, 1857-1924, English novelist, b. Berdichev, Russia (now Berdychiv, Ukraine), originally named Jósef Teodor Konrad Walecz Korzeniowski. Born of Polish parents, he is considered one of the greatest novelists and prose stylists in English literature. In 1874, Conrad went to sea and later joined (1878) an English merchant ship, becoming (1884) a master mariner as well as a British citizen. Retiring from the merchant fleet in 1894, he began his career as a novelist, and all of his novels are written in English, an acquired language. His notable early works include The Nigger of the Narcissus (1897), Lord Jim (1900), and the novellas Youth (1902), Heart of Darkness (1902), and Typhoon (1903). The novels Nostromo (1904), The Secret Agent (1907), Under Western Eyes (1911), and Chance (1913) are regarded by many as Conrad's greatest works. Of his later works, Victory (1915) is the best known. He also collaborated on two novels with Ford Madox Ford, The Inheritors (1901) and Romance (1903). Marked by a distinctive, opulent prose style, Conrad's novels combine realism and high drama. Their settings include nautical backgrounds as well as high society, and international politics. Conrad was a skilled creator of atmosphere and character; the impact of various situations was augmented by his use of symbolism. He portrayed acutely the conflict between non-western cultures and modern civilization. His characters exhibit the possibilities for isolation and moral deterioration in modern life.

Nollekens, Joseph, 1737-1823, English sculptor, b. London. He studied in Rome and in 1770 returned to London, where he became the most fashionable portrait sculptor of his day. Among his famous busts are those of George III, the younger Pitt, Charles James Fox (1792, private coll.), Laurence Sterne (1766, National Portrait Gall., London), and Benjamin West. His numerous statues and groups in marble include Cupid and Psyche and Bacchus.

Habersham, Joseph, 1751-1815, political leader in the American Revolution and U.S. Postmaster General (1795-1801), b. Savannah, Ga.; the son of James Habersham. From the beginning, he was active in the Revolutionary cause and rose to be a colonel in the Continental Army. He also served in the Continental Congress and was a member of the Georgia convention that ratified the Constitution of the United States. After service in the cabinet, he was (1802-15) president of the Georgia branch of the Bank of the United States.

Hall, Joseph, 1574-1656, English prelate and author. He was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and became bishop of Exeter, 1627-41, and of Norwich, 1641-47. The rise of Puritanism involved him in serious church difficulties, and his vigorous defense of the episcopacy against its attackers resulted in his imprisonment in 1641 on charges of high treason. He was eventually released, but he lived the remainder of his life in poverty. Hall's most notable work, his verse satires, modeled after the Roman satirist Juvenal, appeared in two parts: Virgidemiarum or Toothless Satires (1597) and Biting Satires (1598). He also wrote prose satires, poems, meditations, and autobiographical tracts.

Wright, Joseph, 1756-93, American portrait painter, b. Bordentown, N.J., son of Patience Lovell Wright. He studied under Benjamin West in London, where he painted the prince of Wales (later George IV). Wright worked briefly in Paris, where he knew Franklin, whose letters of recommendation enabled him to obtain a sitting from General and Mrs. Washington on his return to America. He also painted a portrait of John Jay (N.Y. Historical Society) and a group portrait of his own family (Pa. Acad. of the Fine Arts). In 1792 he was made diesinker at the U.S. Mint, Philadelphia; the nation's first official coins and medals are probably Wright's work.

Galloway, Joseph, c.1731-1803, American Loyalist leader, b. West River, Md. Galloway was a prominent lawyer with an interest in commerce and in speculation in Western lands. He entered the Pennsylvania assembly in 1756 and soon joined Benjamin Franklin in petitioning the king to abolish the proprietary government of the Penns. As speaker of the Pennsylvania assembly (1766-75) he attempted to conciliate between the colonies and the British government; he believed that the growing conflict could be settled by legal means, especially by a written constitution for the empire. Galloway served as a delegate to the first Continental Congress and proposed a plan for union between the colonies and Great Britain. Unable to maintain neutrality in the American Revolution, he joined Sir William Howe after the British occupied Philadelphia and acted as civil administrator during the British occupation of the city. Later (1778) Galloway went to England and became the spokesman of American Loyalists there.

Von Sternberg, Joseph (Jo Sternberg), 1894-1969, Austrian-American film director and screenwriter. Von Sternberg, who worked in the United States from 1925, made films that were noted for their dazzling visual impact and attention to physical detail. His early works include The Salvation Hunters (1925), Underworld (1927), and Docks of New York (1928). His masterpiece was The Blue Angel (1930) with Emil Jannings and Marlene Dietrich, made in Germany. The film depicts, with a dreadful intimacy and a striking control of contrasting atmospheres, a stuffy professor's desire for a nightclub singer and his subsequent shattering humiliation. Von Sternberg directed Dietrich in several other films (including Morocco, 1930; Shanghai Express, 1932; and The Devil Is a Woman, 1935) and thereby fashioned her enduring screen image. Von Sternberg wrote most of his films' screenplays, relying in later years on romantic formulas. Among his later films are Jet Pilot (1950) and Macao (1951).

Butler, Joseph, 1692-1752, English bishop and exponent of natural theology. Butler held a series of church offices, ending his career as bishop of Durham. His principle writings are Fifteen Sermons (1726), in which he set forth his moral philosophy, and The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature (1736), aimed at combating the influence of deism in England. Both works became standard references in the education of Anglican and other clergy until the late 19th cent. In ethics, Butler was part of the 17th and 18th cent. attempt to find a foundation for morals without appeal to the divine will; he insisted on the complexity of human nature against one-sided accounts by Thomas Hobbes and Anthony Ashley Cooper (see Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3d earl of). In his natural theology he attempted to show that revealed religion was no less probable than the limited affirmations made of God by the deists.

Medill, Joseph, 1823-99, American journalist, b. near St. John, N.B., Canada. His family moved to a farm near Massillon, Ohio, in 1832. He was admitted to the bar in 1846, but in 1849 abandoned law and with his three brothers bought the Coshocton Whig, which he renamed the Republican. In 1851 he founded the Daily Forest City in Cleveland and later merged it with a Free-Soil paper to form the Cleveland Leader. Medill bought an interest in the Chicago Tribune in 1855, became its managing editor and business manager, and from 1874 until his death had absolute control of the paper. He was important in the formation of the Republican party (he is credited with having suggested its name) and was a warm supporter and friend of Lincoln. In the Civil War he advocated the emancipation and arming of the slaves and in Reconstruction days backed the radical Republicans in Congress. He was a member of the Illinois constitutional convention of 1869, was one of the first U.S. civil service commissioners (1871), and was elected (1871) mayor of Chicago.

McKenna, Joseph, 1843-1926, American jurist, Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1898-1925), b. Philadelphia. Admitted to the bar in 1865, he practiced law in California and served in the state legislature (1875-76) and the U.S. Congress (1885-92). A federal circuit judge from 1892 to 1897, he was appointed (1897) U.S. attorney general by President McKinley. He held this office for only a few months before President McKinley appointed him to the Supreme Court. Although he never developed a consistent legal philosophy, McKenna wrote a number of important decisions. Most notable was his opinion in the case of United States v. U.S. Steel Corporation (1920) in which the "rule of reason" principle, asserting that only those combinations that are in unreasonable restraint of trade are illegal, finally triumphed in antitrust cases.

Severn, Joseph, 1793-1879, English portrait and landscape painter. He was consul at Rome from 1861 to 1872. He is best known for his devotion to Keats during the poet's last days. He became a popular portraitist, especially among the friends and associates of Keats.

Bingham, Joseph, 1668-1723, English theologian. He is known for his learned work on Christian antiquities (10 vol., 1708-22).

Black, Joseph, 1728-99, Scottish chemist and physician, b. France. He was professor of chemistry at Glasgow (1756-66) and from 1766 at Edinburgh. He is best known for his theories of latent heat and specific heat. He also laid the foundations of chemistry as an exact science in his investigations on magnesium carbonate, during which he discovered carbon dioxide, which he called "fixed air."

Blackburn, Joseph, b. c.1700, d. after 1765, American portrait painter. Little is known concerning him except that from 1750 to 1765 he painted portraits (usually signed J.B.), chiefly of members of distinguished families in Boston and Portsmouth, N.H. Imitating the English rococo style, he painted portraits of Col. Theodore Atkinson (Worcester Art Mus.); three members of the Greenleaf family (Metropolitan Mus.); and the Isaac Winslow Family (Mus. of Fine Arts, Boston).

Story, Joseph, 1779-1845, American jurist, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court (1811-45), b. Marblehead, Mass. Admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1801, he practiced law in Salem and was several times elected to the Massachusetts legislature. He served briefly in the U.S. Congress in 1808-9. Story's legal scholarship quickly earned him great prominence, and in 1811 (at the age of 32) he was appointed by President Madison to the U.S. Supreme Court, the youngest person ever to hold that position. In the early period of his judicial tenure, as part of his duties on the Supreme Court, he was also a circuit justice in New England. His decisions helped frame U.S. admiralty and prize law. Story's judicial views nearly always agreed with those of John Marshall; this was not the case with Marshall's successor, Roger B. Taney. One of the most important opinions Story wrote for the Supreme Court was Martin v. Hunter's Lessee (1816); it established the power of the federal court to review issues of constitutional law raised in state cases. Story expressed his strong antislavery sentiments in several judgments that ordered the repatriation to Africa of blacks brought into U.S. ports by slavers. In 1829, Story became the first Dane professor of law at Harvard. For the remainder of his life he sat on the Supreme Court and taught at Harvard. In connection with his teaching, Story wrote many legal works, systematic summaries of bodies of case law (mostly British), so treated as to elucidate the legal and philosophical bases. A nationalist in principle, he attempted to provide a justification for rational and uniform legal principles, thereby not privileging the legal standards practiced in any region. Story's texts must be ranked with James Kent's Commentaries on the American Law as formative influences on American jurisprudence and legal education. They include commentaries on bailments (1832), the U.S. Constitution (3 vol., 1833), conflict of laws (1834), equity jurisprudence (2 vol., 1836), equity pleading (1838), agency (1839), partnership (1841), bills of exchange (1843), and promissory notes (1845). All his books appeared in several editions; that on equity jurisprudence (14th ed. 1918) perhaps retained its utility longest.

Goebbels, Joseph (Paul Joseph Goebbels), 1897-1945, German National Socialist propagandist. He was kept out of the service in World War I by a clubfoot. After graduating from the Univ. of Heidelberg (Ph.D., 1921), be began a journalistic career and wrote some unsuccessful novels. He joined the National Socialist, or Nazi, party and worked with Gregor Strasser, who controlled the party in N Germany. As the split between Hitler and Strasser developed, he switched his loyalty to Hitler and was appointed (1926) district party leader in Berlin, where he founded a new organ for party propaganda, Der Angriff [Attack]. By exploiting mob emotions and by employing all modern methods of propaganda he helped Hitler into power. In 1928, Goebbels was elected to the Reichstag, and when Hitler seized power in 1933 he made Goebbels propaganda minister. This position gave him complete control over radio, press, cinema, and theater; later he also regimented all German culture. Goebbels placed his undeniable intelligence and his brilliant insight into mass psychology entirely at the service of his party. His most virulent propaganda was against the Jews. As a hypnotic orator he was second only to Hitler, and in his staging of mass meetings and parades he was unsurpassed. Utterly cynical, he seems to have believed only in the self-justification of power. He remained loyal to Hitler until the end; in Apr., 1945, he killed his family and himself while Berlin was falling to Soviet troops.

Bramah, Joseph, 1748-1814, English inventor. In 1784 he took out his first patent on a safety lock, and in 1795 he patented his hydraulic press, known as the Bramah press (see under hydraulic machine). He devised a numerical printing machine for bank notes and was one of the first to suggest the practicability of screw propellers and of hydraulic transmission.

Brant, Joseph, 1742-1807, chief of the Mohawk. His Mohawk name is usually rendered as Thayendanegea. He served under Sir William Johnson in the French and Indian War, and Johnson sent him (1761) to Eleazar Wheelock's school for Native Americans in Lebanon, Conn. Brant served (1763) under Johnson again in Pontiac's Rebellion. In the American Revolution he did much to bind the indigenous people to the British and Loyalist side. He fought (1777) at Oriskany in the Saratoga campaign. In 1778, leading the Native American forces, he joined Walter Butler, and together they raided Cherry Valley, where they massacred the defenseless inhabitants. He was an able leader in other raids. After the Revolution, failing to get a settlement of the Native American land question in the United States, he got lands and subsidies for his people in Canada around the present Brantford, Ont. A zealous Christian, he preached Christianity, translating the Book of Common Prayer and the Gospel of Mark into the Mohawk language.

Stella, Joseph, 1877-1946, American painter, b. Italy, emigrated to the United States in 1896. He studied at the Art Students League of New York City with William Chase and later in Italy and Paris. He is best known for his cubist- and futurist-inspired paintings executed in the years around 1920. These works strikingly expressed the vibrancy and dynamism of life in New York City. The best known of this group is "The Bridge," from the series New York Interpreted (Newark Mus., N.J.). He later turned to more mystical subjects, in paintings notable for their strong color and incisive realism.

Dudley, Joseph, 1647-1720, colonial governor of Massachusetts, b. Roxbury, Mass.; son of Thomas Dudley. In 1682 he was one of the agents sent to England to protest against the threatened loss of the Massachusetts charter. Having found favor in England, Dudley was appointed head of the temporary government in the colony until Sir Edmund Andros arrived (1686) a few months later as governor of all of New England. Under Andros he held several prominent positions, but with Andros's fall (1689) Dudley was sent to England to answer charges brought against him by the colonists. Acquitted of the charges, he was appointed chief of the council of New York (1690-92) and acted as chief justice during the trial of Jacob Leisler. Back in England again, he was elected to Parliament (1701), but soon returned as governor of Massachusetts (1702-15). Dudley raised and directed military expeditions against Canada, but his administration was marked by dissension because of his earlier unpopularity in the colony and his uncompromising attitude.

His son, Paul Dudley, 1675-1751, b. Roxbury, Mass., rose to considerable prominence as a jurist in spite of his father's unpopularity and the hostility of the Mather faction. He was chief justice of Massachusetts (1745-51) and was well known as a naturalist.

Duveen, Joseph, 1st Baron Duveen of Millbank, 1869-1939, English art dealer, b. Hull. Beginning his career (1886) in his father's antiques firm, Duveen Brothers, he soon took over the business and expanded it to mammoth dimensions, presiding over galleries in London, Paris, and New York and specializing in the acquisition and sale of Old Master pictures. He contributed paintings to many museums, notably London's National Gallery, British Museum, and Tate Gallery. After 1906 he employed Bernard Berenson to authenticate his great acquisitions in Renaissance art. A connoisseur with a famously fine eye for quality and a salesman with an amazing gift of persuasion, Duveen built an empire out of the business of art dealing. He was the most influential agent in the forming of the art collections of such culture-seeking American tycoons as Henry Clay Frick, William Randolph Hearst, Henry E. Huntington, Samuel H. Kress, Andrew Mellon, John D. Rockefeller, and Joseph E. Widener. Many of these collections are now in museums. Duveen was created baron in 1933.

Szigeti, Joseph, 1892-1973, Hungarian-American violinist. After his debut at 13, Szigeti made his first European tour in 1912. Thereafter he achieved worldwide recognition for his musicianship and his interest in the music of contemporary composers. Szigeti made his American debut in 1925 and became a United States citizen in 1951. He made more than 100 recordings; in 1960 he retired.

Wheeler, Joseph, 1836-1906, Confederate general in the American Civil War, b. Augusta, Ga. He resigned from the U.S. army in Apr., 1861, to fight for the Confederacy. He commanded a regiment at Shiloh (Apr., 1862) and became chief of cavalry in the Army of Tennessee (Oct.). Wheeler took part in Braxton Bragg's Kentucky campaign and in the Chattanooga campaign, in which he destroyed William Rosecrans's supplies in a brilliant raid through middle Tennessee (Oct.). Wheeler operated against William T. Sherman in the Atlanta campaign, the march to the sea, and the advance through the Carolinas. He surrendered with Joseph E. Johnston's army in Apr., 1865. After the war Wheeler, a lawyer and planter in Alabama, served in the House of Representatives (1881-82, 1883, 1885-1900). A major general of volunteers in the Spanish-American War, he commanded cavalry in the invasion of Cuba. He also led a brigade in the Philippine insurrection (1899-1900). He was made a brigadier general in the regular army shortly before he retired in Sept., 1900. Wheeler wrote The Santiago Campaign (1899).

Pennell, Joseph, 1857-1926, American illustrator, etcher, lithographer, and author, b. Philadelphia, studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Much of his time was spent in Europe, particularly in London, where he was greatly influenced by Whistler. His subjects are chiefly landscapes and architectural views, and his art is distinguished for its simplicity, technical perfection, and illustrative quality. He is represented by etchings, drawings, and lithographs in the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts; Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh; and Brooklyn Museum, N.Y. Pennell was a member (1909) of the National Academy of Design and of numerous European societies and was a lecturer on illustration at the Slade School of Art, London, and the Royal College of Art, South Kensington. His publications include Pen Drawings and Pen Draughtsmen (1889), Modern Illustration (1895), Lithographs of New York (1905), Etchers and Etching (1919), Adventures of an Illustrator (1925), and, with Elizabeth R. Pennell, his wife, a biography of James McNeill Whistler (1908).

Caillaux, Joseph, 1863-1944, French statesman. Son of a former cabinet minister, he entered the French civil service as inspector of finance. He later became finance minister in the cabinet of René Waldeck-Rousseau (1899-1902) and in the cabinet of Georges Clemenceau (1906-9), winning considerable unpopularity by introducing the income tax. As premier in 1911, he reached a peaceful settlement of the crisis over Morocco with Germany. However, he was severely attacked by the nationalists, and his cabinet fell in 1912. In 1913 he again became minister of finance. He resigned in 1914 to defend his wife, who had shot and killed Gaston Calmette, editor of Le Figaro, for attacking Caillaux's private life. Mme Caillaux was acquitted. Caillaux expressed pacifist sentiments during World War I and allegedly made contact with the Germans to discuss a negotiated peace. He was arrested (1917) and sentenced (1920) to three years imprisonment for involvement with the enemy. After his civil rights were restored under a general amnesty, Caillaux served as finance minister in the cabinets of Paul Painlevé (1925) and Aristide Briand (1926), but after each appointment a hostile chamber of deputies forced his resignation. He was subsequently elected to the senate.

Erlanger, Joseph, 1874-1965, American scientist, b. San Francisco, grad. Univ. of California (B.S., 1895), M.D. Johns Hopkins, 1899. For his contributions to physiology, especially his work on nerve action, he shared with Herbert Spencer Gasser the 1944 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. He was professor (1910-46) and (from 1946) professor emeritus of physiology at the medical school of Washington Univ., St. Louis. With H. S. Gasser he wrote Electrical Signs of Nervous Activity (1937).

Smith, Joseph, 1805-44, American Mormon leader, founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day Saints, b. Sharon, Vt. When he was a boy his family moved to Palmyra, N.Y., where he experienced the poverty and hardships of life on a rough frontier. He had visions when he was still young and later recorded that he was first told in a vision in 1823 of the existence of secret records, but it was not until 1827 that the hiding place of the records was revealed to him. According to his account, in 1827 he unearthed golden tablets inscribed with sacred writings that he translated. Oliver Cowdery, Martin Harris, and others transcribed these records from his dictation, and the Book of Mormon was published in 1830. Further revelations led him to found a new religion after priesthood had been conferred upon him and Cowdery by an "angel." As prophet and seer he founded (1830) his church in Fayette, N.Y. (see Latter-day Saints, Church of Jesus Christ of).

The hostility of his neighbors forced him to move his headquarters to Kirtland, Ohio, where with the help of Sidney Rigdon and others he embarked on extensive business affairs. The Panic of 1837 was one of the reasons for removal farther west to Missouri. There the industrious and self-contained members of his faith again ran into difficulties with their neighbors. Smith and others were arrested but escaped, and his faithful followers were driven from Missouri.

Having obtained a favorable charter from Illinois, Smith founded the settlement of Nauvoo, which, thanks to the concerted efforts of the members of his church, was soon flourishing. Disaffection grew, however, and some of the dissident members founded a newspaper, the Expositor, in which they bitterly criticized him. He put down the opposition, thereby giving the hostile non-Mormons a pretext for attacking him. When in 1844 he announced himself as candidate for the presidency of the United States, his enemies set upon him. He and his brother Hyrum were arrested on charges of treason and conspiracy. They were lodged in the jail at Carthage, Ill., and there on June 27, 1844, they were murdered by a mob.

The revelations experienced by Smith—including one enjoining plural marriage, which later caused the Mormons much trouble—were the foundation stones of a faith that after his death grew to be one of the great religions of the United States. Because he was a highly controversial figure, the literature on him is also controversial.

Kabila, Joseph, 1971-, Congolese political leader, eldest son of Laurent Kabila. He was educated in Tanzania while his father was in exile there, and after the father became president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, he received military training in Rwanda and China. Returning home (1998), he was appointed general, named head of Congo's armed forces, and became president (2001) after his father's murder. He quickly reinstated political parties and promised democratic and economic reforms, and made a series of efforts to end the raging civil war. In 2002 Kabila signed a peace agreement with the rebels, but fighting continued. In 2003 UN forces arrived to restore order, and a transitional national unity government led by Kabila took office. After he survived two coup attempts (2004), a new constitution was finally approved (2005) and presidential elections were held (2006). Kabila handily defeated rebel leader Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo in a runoff election.

Kasavubu, Joseph, 1917?-1969, African political leader, president of the Republic of the Congo (1960-65, now the Democratic Republic of the Congo). He studied for the Roman Catholic priesthood but did not complete his training. Later, he became active in the nationalist movement while teaching school and working for the Belgian government in the Congo. In 1946 he asserted that the Congolese were the legitimate owners of the country and that the Belgians, as intruders, had to leave. In 1955 he became president of Abako, a cultural association of the Bakongo people. Under his leadership Abako became a powerful political organization. Briefly imprisoned in 1959 for inciting violence, he later attended (1960) the conference at Brussels that led to independence for the Congo. He became (1960) the Congo's first head of state. There ensued a struggle for power between him and Patrice Lumumba, the premier, in which each attempted to dismiss the other. Lumumba was ousted by Kasavubu with the aid of Colonel Mobutu (see Mobutu Sese Seko). In 1965, Mobutu deposed Kasavubu, who retired from politics.

Henry, Joseph, 1797-1878, American physicist, b. Albany, N.Y., educated at Albany Academy. He taught (1826-32) mathematics and natural philosophy at Albany Academy and was professor of natural philosophy (1832-46) at Princeton (then the College of New Jersey). From 1846 he served as the first secretary and director of the newly founded Smithsonian Institution; he introduced and developed many of its activities and established its general policies. Before assuming his responsibilities at the Smithsonian, he had made notable contributions to the physical sciences, especially in electromagnetism. Henry improved the electromagnet, increasing its strength and fitting it for practical use. He invented and operated the first electromagnetic telegraph, which formed the basis for the commercial telegraphic system. He discovered self-inductance, and the unit of inductance is often called the henry in his honor. Independently of Michael Faraday, he discovered the principle of the induced current, basic to the dynamo, transformer, and many other devices. Henry invented a small electromagnetic motor, and extended the work on induced currents to show that an induced current can be used to induce another current in a nearby circuit and that resulting currents in turn can induce others. His numerous other contributions include the institution of the weather report system.

Hergesheimer, Joseph, 1880-1954, American novelist, b. Philadelphia. He first achieved literary distinction with the publication of The Three Black Pennys (1917). This novel, set against the background of the Pennsylvania iron industry, portrays the changing fortunes of a family of ironmasters. His other important works include Java Head (1919), dealing with miscegenation in a New England sea-trading family, and Linda Condon (1919), a character study of an emotionally repressed girl. Among his later colorful novels, generally considered less artistic, are Balisand (1924) and Tampico (1926). Hergesheimer, who has been called a naturalist writing of the romantic past, is also the author of short stories, essays, biographies, and the autobiography, From an Old House (1925).

Krauskopf, Joseph, 1858-1923, American rabbi and humanitarian, b. Prussia. He went to the United States in 1872, enrolling (1875) in the first class of the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, and receiving ordination in 1883. From 1887 until his death he was rabbi of the Congregation Keneseth Israel, Philadelphia, which flourished under his leadership. He was founder and president of the National Farm School at Doylestown, Pa., which opened in 1897, and he studied agricultural conditions in Russia. Krauskopf was a leader of charitable activities and reform movements in Philadelphia and Pennsylvania and a leading spokesman for his people. His writings include Evolution and Judaism (1887).

Badger, Joseph, 1708-65, American painter, b. Charlestown, Mass. By trade a glazier and house and sign painter, he turned his hand to portraiture. Generally uninspired, his work appears at its best in his numerous portrayals of young children, such as Jeremiah Belknap (Mus. of Art, Cleveland).

Keppler, Joseph, 1838-94, American cartoonist, b. Vienna. Emigrating to America in 1867, he established with Adolph Schwarzmann in St. Louis a humorous German periodical, Puck (1871). Upon its failure, Keppler joined the staff of Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper in New York City and in 1876 started a second Puck, followed in 1877 by the English edition. Both magazines became famous for their political cartoons, which espoused the cause of the national Democratic party. Keppler's cartoons were skillfully drawn and notable for their penetrating satire. He was the first in the United States to apply color lithography to caricature.

(born Nov. 22, 1890, Lille, France—died Nov. 9, 1970, Colombey-les-Deux-Églises) French soldier, statesman, and architect of France's Fifth Republic. He joined the army in 1913 and fought with distinction in World War I. He was promoted to the staff of the supreme war council in 1925. In 1940 he was promoted to brigadier general and served briefly as undersecretary of state for defense under Paul Reynaud. After the fall of France to the Germans, he left for England and started the Free French movement. Devoted to France and dedicated to its liberation, he moved to Algiers in 1943 and became president of the French Committee of National Liberation, at first jointly with Henri-Honoré Giraud. After the liberation of Paris, he returned and headed two provisional governments, then resigned in 1946. He opposed the Fourth Republic, and in 1947 he formed the Rally of the French People (RPF), but severed his connections with it in 1953. He retired from public life and wrote his memoirs. When an insurrection in Algeria threatened to bring civil war to France, he returned to power in 1958, as prime minister with powers to reform the constitution. That same year he was elected president of the new Fifth Republic, which ensured a strong presidency. He ended the Algerian War and transformed France's African territories into 12 independent states. He withdrew France from NATO, and his policy of neutrality during the Vietnam War was seen by many as anti-Americanism. He began a policy of détente with Iron Curtain countries and traveled widely to form a bond with French-speaking countries. After the civil unrest of May 1968 by students and workers, he was defeated in a referendum on constitutional amendments and resigned in 1969.

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(born Oct. 12, 1815, near Savannah, Ga., U.S.—died Nov. 6, 1873, Whytheville, Va.) U.S. military leader. A graduate of West Point (1838), he wrote Rifle and Light Infantry Tactics (1855), a popular manual that was later used by both sides in the American Civil War. When Georgia seceded in 1861, Hardee resigned his commission and assumed command of Confederate forces in northeastern Arkansas, later demonstrating his military skills at the Battles of Shiloh and Chattanooga. As commander of the military department of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, he attempted to halt the march of William T. Sherman across Georgia. After the war he retired to his plantation.

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(born April 25, 1906, Newark, N.J., U.S.—died July 24, 1997, Arlington, Va.) U.S. jurist. He studied under Felix Frankfurter at Harvard Law School, receiving his degree in 1931. He practiced labour law in New Jersey until 1949, when he was appointed to the state Superior Court. He rose through the ranks of the New Jersey courts, where he was noted for his administrative skill. Although a Democrat, he was named to the Supreme Court of the United States by Republican Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1956. He came to be regarded as one of the most influential jurists in its history. A liberal constructionist and an articulate defender of the Bill of Rights, he is perhaps best remembered for his role in a series of obscenity cases, beginning with Roth v. United States (1957), many of which broadened the protection accorded to publishers while seeking to balance individual freedoms with the interests of the community. In New York Times v. Sullivan (1964), he wrote that even false statements about public officials are protected under the 1st and 14th Amendments unless “actual malice” can be demonstrated. He also wrote the majority opinion in Baker v. Carr (1962). He opposed capital punishment and supported abortion rights, affirmative action, and school desegregation. He served until 1990; his decisions numbered more than 1,350.

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(born June 11, 1741, Roxbury, Mass.—died June 17, 1775, Bunker Hill, Mass.) American Revolutionary leader. He was a physician in Boston. He was active in patriot causes after passage of the Stamp Act (1765) and helped draft the Massachusetts colonial grievances called the Suffolk Resolves (1774). As a member of the Massachusetts Committee of Public Safety, he sent Paul Revere on his ride to Lexington. He was made a major general in the Revolutionary army and died in the Battle of Bunker Hill.

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(born June 29, 1886, Lenox, Mass., U.S.—died May 15, 1983, Washington, D.C.) U.S. photographer. By 1906 he had moved with his family to Harlem in New York City. After a brief stint at a portrait studio in Newark, N.J., he returned to Harlem to set up his own studio. The portraits he took from 1918 to 1945 chronicled the Harlem Renaissance; among his many renowned subjects were Countee Cullen, Bill Robinson, and Marcus Garvey. After World War II his fortunes declined until the Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibited his photographs in 1969.

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(born April 23, 1775, London, Eng.—died Dec. 19, 1851, London) British landscape painter. The son of a barber, he entered the Royal Academy school in 1789. In 1802 he became a full academician and in 1807 was appointed professor of perspective. His early work was concerned with accurate depictions of places, but he soon learned from Richard Wilson to take a more poetic and imaginative approach. The Shipwreck (1805) shows his new emphasis on luminosity, atmosphere, and Romantic, dramatic subjects. After a trip to Italy in 1819, his colour became purer and more prismatic, with a general heightening of key. In later paintings, such as Sunrise, with a Boat Between Headlands (1845), architectural and natural details are sacrificed to effects of colour and light, with only the barest indication of mass. His compositions became more fluid, suggesting movement and space. In breaking down conventional formulas of representation, he anticipated French Impressionism. His immense reputation in the 19th century was due largely to John Ruskin's enthusiasm for his early works; 20th-century critics celebrated the abstract qualities of his late colour compositions.

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(born April 14, 1889, London, Eng.—died Oct. 22, 1975, York, North Yorkshire) English historian. Long a professor at the University of London and the Royal Institute of International Affairs, Toynbee also held positions with the British Foreign Office. He is best known for his 12-volume A Study of History (1934–61), which put forward a philosophy of history, based on an analysis of the development and decline of 26 civilizations. Criticisms of his Study include his use of myths and metaphors as being of comparable value to factual data and his reliance on a view of religion as a regenerative force. His other works include Civilization on Trial (1948), East to West (1958), and Hellenism (1959).

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(born July 22, 1872, St. Joseph, Mo., U.S.—died Jan. 26, 1945, Kansas City, Mo.) U.S. politician. He was active in municipal politics in Kansas City, Mo., and became the political boss of the city's Democrats by 1916. His political machine dominated city and state politics for almost 25 years and influenced national Democratic conventions. He helped Harry S. Truman in his early political career. Attacked by opponents for allowing corrupt practices in Kansas City, he was convicted of income-tax evasion in 1939 and served one year in prison.

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(born May 1, 1881, Sarcenat, France—died April 10, 1955, New York, N.Y., U.S.) French philosopher and paleontologist. Ordained a Jesuit priest in 1911, he taught geology from 1918 at the Institut Catholique in Paris. In 1929 he directed the excavations at the Peking man site at Zhoukoudian. This and other geological work won him high honours, though it came to be disapproved of by the Jesuit order. His philosophy was strongly informed by his scientific work, which he believed helped prove the existence of God. He is known for his theory that mankind is evolving, mentally and socially, toward a final spiritual unity that he called the Omega point. Though his major philosophical works, The Divine Milieu (1957) and The Phenomenon of Man (1955), were written in the 1920s and '30s, their publication in his lifetime was forbidden by the Jesuits.

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(born Oct. 31, 1828, Sunderland, Durham, Eng.—died May 27, 1914, Warlingham, Surrey) English physicist and chemist. By 1871 he had invented the dry photographic plate, an important improvement in photography. He had already produced an early electric lightbulb (1860), and in 1880, independently of Thomas Alva Edison, he produced a carbon-filament incandescent electric lamp. He also patented a process for squeezing nitrocellulose through holes to form fibres, a process that became widely employed in the textile industry.

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(born Sept. 18, 1779, Marblehead, Mass., U.S.—died Sept. 10, 1845, Cambridge, Mass.) U.S. jurist. After graduating from Harvard University, he practiced law in Salem, Mass. (1801–11) and served in the state legislature and U.S. Congress (1805–11). In 1811, though he was only 32 and lacked any judicial experience, he was appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States by Pres. James Madison. There he joined John Marshall in interpreting the U.S. Constitution in a manner favouring the expansion of federal power. His opinion in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee (1816) established the court's appellate authority over the highest state courts. During his tenure on the court, he taught at Harvard (1829–45), where he became the first Dane Professor of Law and whose endowment funded his influential series of commentaries, including Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States (1833), The Conflict of Laws (1834), and On Equity Jurisprudence (1836). He and James Kent are considered the founders of U.S. equity jurisprudence.

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(born March 19, 1883, Palatka, Fla., U.S.—died Oct. 12, 1946, San Francisco, Calif.) U.S. army officer. He graduated from West Point and served in World War I. He studied Chinese and served in Tianjin (1926–29) and as a military attaché in Beijing (1935–39). At the outbreak of World War II, he became chief of staff to Gen. Chiang Kai-shek and commanded Chinese armies in Burma (1939–42). He became commander of U.S. forces in China, Burma, and India and oversaw construction of the Ledo, or Stilwell, Road, a strategic military link with the Burma Road. Promoted to general (1944), he commanded the U.S. 10th Army in the Pacific (1945–46).

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(born Jan. 17, 1911, Renton, Wash., U.S.—died Dec. 1, 1991, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. economist. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago. He taught at various institutions and in 1977 founded the Center for the Study of the Economy and the State at the University of Chicago. Stigler studied the economics of information, elaborating on the traditional understanding of how efficient markets operate. He also studied public regulation, concluding that it is usually detrimental to consumer interests. He won the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences in 1982.

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(born April 6, 1866, San Francisco, Calif., U.S.—died Aug. 9, 1936, Carmel, Calif.) U.S. journalist and reformer. He worked for New York City newspapers (1892–1901) and was managing editor of McClure's Magazine (1901–06), where he began his famous muckraking articles—later published as The Shame of the Cities (1904)—exposing corruption in politics and big business. He lectured widely and aroused public interest in seeking solutions and taking action. He later supported revolutionary activities in Mexico and Russia and lived in Europe (1917–27). The success of his Autobiography (1931) returned him to the lecture circuit.

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orig. Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili

(born Dec. 21, 1879, Gori, Georgia, Russian Empire—died March 5, 1953, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet politician and dictator. The son of a cobbler, he studied at a seminary but was expelled for revolutionary activity in 1899. He joined an underground revolutionary group and sided with the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party in 1903. A disciple of Vladimir Lenin, he served in minor party posts and was appointed to the first Bolshevik Central Committee (1912). He remained active behind the scenes and in exile (1913–17) until the Russian Revolution of 1917 brought the Bolsheviks to power. Having adopted the name Stalin (from Russian stal, “steel”), he served as commissar for nationalities and for state control in the Bolshevik government (1917–23). He was a member of the Politburo, and in 1922 he became secretary-general of the party's Central Committee. After Lenin's death (1924), Stalin overcame his rivals, including Leon Trotsky, Grigory Zinovyev, Lev Kamenev, Nikolay Bukharin, and Aleksey Rykov, and took control of Soviet politics. In 1928 he inaugurated the Five-Year Plans that radically altered Soviet economic and social structures and resulted in the deaths of many millions. In the 1930s he contrived to eliminate threats to his power through the purge trials and through widespread secret executions and persecution. In World War II he signed the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (1939), attacked Finland (see Russo-Finnish War), and annexed parts of eastern Europe to strengthen his western frontiers. When Germany invaded Russia (1941), Stalin took control of military operations. He allied Russia with Britain and the U.S.; at the Tehrān, Yalta, and Potsdam conferences, he demonstrated his negotiating skill. After the war he consolidated Soviet power in eastern Europe and built up the Soviet Union as a world military power. He continued his repressive political measures to control internal dissent; increasingly paranoid, he was preparing to mount another purge after the so-called Doctors' Plot when he died. Noted for bringing the Soviet Union into world prominence, at terrible cost to his own people, he left a legacy of repression and fear as well as industrial and military power. In 1956 Stalin and his personality cult were denounced by Nikita Khrushchev.

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(born Dec. 23, 1805, Sharon, Vt., U.S.—died June 27, 1844, Carthage, Ill.) Founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon church). He began experiencing visions as a teenager in Palmyra, N.Y. In 1827 he claimed that an angel had directed him to buried golden plates containing God's revelation; these he translated into the Book of Mormon (1830). He led converts to Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois, where he established the town of Nauvoo (1839), which soon became the state's largest town. Imprisoned for treason after his efforts to silence Mormon dissenters led to mob violence, he was murdered by a lynch mob that stormed the jail where he was held. His work was continued by Brigham Young.

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(born Oct. 31, 1828, Sunderland, Durham, Eng.—died May 27, 1914, Warlingham, Surrey) English physicist and chemist. By 1871 he had invented the dry photographic plate, an important improvement in photography. He had already produced an early electric lightbulb (1860), and in 1880, independently of Thomas Alva Edison, he produced a carbon-filament incandescent electric lamp. He also patented a process for squeezing nitrocellulose through holes to form fibres, a process that became widely employed in the textile industry.

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(born Dec. 18, 1856, Cheetham Hill, near Manchester, Eng.—died Aug. 30, 1940, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire) English physicist. Educated at the University of Cambridge, he taught there at the Cavendish Laboratory (1884–1918), which he developed into a world-renowned institution, and was master of Trinity College (1918–40). In 1897 he showed that cathode rays are rapidly moving particles, and, by measuring their displacement by electric and magnetic fields, he determined that these particles were nearly 2,000 times less massive than the lightest known atomic particle. Originally called corpuscles by Thomson, the particles are now known as electrons. His discovery helped revolutionize the knowledge of atomic structure. In 1903 he suggested a discontinuous theory of light, foreshadowing Albert Einstein's later theory of photons. He later discovered isotopes and invented mass spectrometry. In 1906 Thomson received a Nobel Prize for his research into the electrical conductivity of gases. Throughout his life he was noted as an outstanding teacher, and seven of his assistants also became Nobel laureates.

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(born Oct. 16, 1863, Birmingham, Warwickshire, Eng.—died March 16, 1937, London) British statesman. Son of Joseph Chamberlain and half brother of Neville Chamberlain, he entered the House of Commons in 1892. He held a variety of posts, including chancellor of the Exchequer (1903–05, 1919–21) and secretary of state for India (1915–17). As foreign secretary (1924–29), he helped bring about the Locarno Pact, intended to secure peace in western Europe. For that accomplishment, he shared the 1925 Nobel Prize for Peace with Charles Dawes.

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(born March 12, 1821, St. Andrews, Lower Canada—died Oct. 30, 1893, Montreal, Que., Can.) Canadian prime minister (1891–92). Educated at McGill University in Montreal, he became a lawyer in 1847 and was made queen's counsel in 1862. He was dean of McGill University law school from 1855 to 1880. After serving in the legislative assembly (1857–74, 1880–87), he was appointed to the Senate and became government leader. Upon the death of John Macdonald, he became the compromise choice for prime minister. Ill health forced his resignation in 1892.

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(born Feb. 13, 1903, Liège, Belg.—died Sept. 4, 1989, Lausanne, Switz.) Belgian-born French novelist. During 1923–33 he wrote more than 200 pseudonymous books of pulp fiction. His first novel under his own name was The Case of Peter the Lett (1931), in which he introduced one of the best-known characters in detective fiction, the Parisian police official Inspector Maigret. He wrote some 80 more Maigret novels, as well as about 130 psychological novels, numerous short stories, and autobiographical works, and was one of the most prolific and widely published authors of the 20th century. Simenon's central theme is the essential humanity of even the isolated, abnormal individual and the sorrow at the root of the human condition. Employing a style of rigorous simplicity, he evokes a prevailing atmosphere of neurotic tensions with sharp economy.

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(born Feb. 1, 1904, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—died Oct. 17, 1979, New York, N.Y.) U.S. humorist. Perelman attended Brown University and soon began writing screenplays for early Marx Brothers films such as Monkey Business (1931) and Horse Feathers (1932). A master of wordplay, he regularly contributed essays to The New Yorker; many were collected in books such as Westward Ha! (1948) and The Road to Miltown (1957). He collaborated with Kurt Weill on the musical One Touch of Venus (1943). His later screenplays include Around the World in 80 Days (1956, Academy Award).

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(born Feb. 8, 1883, Triesch, Moravia—died Jan. 8, 1950, Taconic, Conn., U.S.) Moravian-U.S. economist and sociologist. Educated in Austria, he taught at several European universities before joining the faculty of Harvard University (1932–50). He became known for his theories of capitalist development and the business cycle. His popular book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (1942) argued that capitalism would eventually perish of its own success. His posthumous History of Economic Analysis (1954) is an exhaustive study of the development of analytic methods in economics.

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(born Jan. 27, 1775, Leonberg, Württemberg—died Aug. 20, 1854, Bad Ragaz, Switz.) German philosopher and educator. Inspired by Immanuel Kant, in his System of Transcendental Idealism (1800) he attempted to unite his concept of nature with the philosophy of Johann Gottlieb Fichte. He held that art mediates between the natural and physical spheres when the natural (or unconscious) and spiritual (or conscious) productions are united in artistic creation. His view that the Absolute expresses itself in all beings as the unity of the subjective and the objective was criticized by G.W.F. Hegel. In Of Human Freedom (1809), he declared that mankind's freedom is real only if it is freedom for both good and evil, a position that forms the basis of his later philosophy. A major figure of post-Kantian idealism, Schelling had an important influence on Romanticism. Seealso Immanuel Kant; Kantianism.

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(born April 23, 1484, Riva, Republic of Venice—died Oct. 21, 1558, Agen, France) (born Aug. 5, 1540, Agen, France—died Jan. 21, 1609, Leiden, Holland) Classical scholars. Julius worked in botany, zoology, and grammar but was chiefly interested in developing an understanding and critical evaluation of the ancients. His most widely read book was his Poetics (1561), in which Greco-Roman rhetoric and poetics are used as a foundation for literary criticism. His son Joseph, a precocious student of language, studied in France, Germany, and Italy and taught in France before he was called to the University of Leiden, where he became known as the most erudite scholar of his time. His major works are the Study on the Improvement of Time (1583) and Thesaurus of Time (1609), which brought order to ancient chronology.

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(flourished 1st century AD, Nazareth, Galilee region of Palestine; principle feast day March 19; Feast of St. Joseph the Worker May 1) In the New Testament, the husband of Mary and the earthly father of Jesus. Descended from the house of David, he was a carpenter in Nazareth. Betrothed to Mary when he found her already pregnant, an angel appeared to him in a vision and told him the expected child was the son of God. He and Mary journeyed to Bethlehem to be counted in the Roman census, and while they were there the child was born. The last mention of Joseph occurs in the Gospel of Luke, when he and Mary take the 12-year-old Jesus to Jerusalem.

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(born Feb. 16, 1884, Iron Mountain, Mich., U.S.—died July 23, 1951, Dummerston, Vt.) U.S. filmmaker, considered the father of the documentary. He grew up in remote northern Canada and later led explorations of the area (1910–16). He lived with the Eskimos for 16 months and filmed their way of life. His resulting film, Nanook of the North (1922), was an international success and established the model for the documentary film. His later documentaries include Moana (1926), Tabu (1931), Man of Aran (1934), The Land (1942), and Louisiana Story (1948).

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(born April 8, 1892, Vienna, Austria—died April 16, 1970, Wuppertal, W.Ger.) Austrian-born U.S. architect. Educated in Vienna and Zürich, Neutra moved to the U.S. in 1923. His most important early work was the Lovell House, Los Angeles (1927–29), which features glass expanses and cable-suspended balconies. Shortly after World War II, Neutra created his most memorable works: the Kaufmann Desert House, Palm Springs, Calif. (1946–47), and the Tremaine House, Santa Barbara, Calif. (1947–48). Elegant and precise, these houses are considered exceptionally fine examples of the International Style, which Neutra helped introduce into the U.S. Carefully placed in the landscape, Neutra's houses often have patios or porches that make the outdoors seem part of the house. He believed that architecture should be a means of bringing man back into harmony with nature and with himself and was particularly concerned that his houses reflect the way of life of the owner. His later works included office buildings, churches, housing projects, and cultural centres. His many writings include Survival Through Design (1954).

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(born May 15, 1902, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—died Dec. 20, 1976, Chicago) U.S. politician, mayor of Chicago (1955–76). A lawyer in his native Chicago, Daley served as state director of revenue (1948–50) and clerk of Cook county (1950–55) before being elected mayor. He pushed urban renewal and highway construction and a sweeping reform of the police department, but he was criticized for failing to eliminate racial segregation in housing and public schools, for promoting downtown skyscraper construction, and for police brutality committed against demonstrators at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. His tight control of city politics through job patronage won him a reputation as “the last of the big-city bosses.” His last years were marred by scandals surrounding members of his administration. His son Richard M. Daley (b. 1942) was first elected mayor of Chicago in 1989.

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(born Feb. 28, 1823, Tréguier, France—died Oct. 2, 1892, Paris) French philosopher, historian, and scholar of religion. He trained for the priesthood but left the Catholic church in 1845, feeling that its teachings were incompatible with the findings of historical criticism, though he retained a quasi-Christian faith in God. His five-volume History of the Origins of Christianity (1863–80) includes his Life of Jesus (1863); an attempt to reconstruct the mind of Jesus as a wholly human person, it was virulently denounced by the church but widely read by the general public. His later works include the series History of the People of Israel (1888–96).

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(born March 19, 1873, Brand, Bavaria, Ger.—died May 11, 1916, Leipzig) German composer and organist. From 1890 to 1893 he studied at Sondershausen and Wiesbaden and taught piano, organ, and theory. By 1901, despite opposition to his traditional methods, he had established himself in Munich as a composer, pianist, and teacher. He became a prolific composer of songs, piano pieces, and especially organ music. His music, combining progressive and conservative elements and often highly chromatic, has always been more popular in Germany than elsewhere.

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(born March 7, 1875, Ciboure, France—died Dec. 28, 1937, Paris) French composer. At age 14 he was admitted to the Paris Conservatoire. Completing his piano studies, he returned to study composition with Gabriel Fauré, writing the important piano piece Jeux d'eau (completed 1901) and a string quartet. In the next decade he produced some of his best-known music, including Pavane pour une infante défunte (1899), the String Quartet (1903), and the Sonatine for piano (1905). His great ballet Daphnis et Chloé (1912) was commissioned by the impresario Sergey Diaghilev. Other works include the opera L'Enfant et les sortileges (1925), the suite Le Tombeau de Couperin (1917), and the orchestral works La Valse (1920) and Boléro (1928). Careful and precise, Ravel possessed great gifts as an orchestrator, and his works are universally admired for their superb craftsmanship; he has remained the most widely popular of all French composers.

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(born April 10, 1847, Makó, Hung.—died Oct. 29, 1911, Charleston, S.C., U.S.) Hungarian-born U.S. newspaper editor and publisher. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1864 to serve in the American Civil War. After the war he became a reporter and then proprietor at German-language newspapers in St. Louis and entered Missouri politics. In 1878 he merged the St. Louis Dispatch (founded 1864) and the Post (founded 1875) into the Post-Dispatch, which soon became the city's dominant evening newspaper. Shifting his interests to New York City, he purchased the World (1883) and founded the Evening World (1887). He helped establish the pattern of the modern newspaper by combining exposés of political corruption and crusading investigative reporting with publicity stunts, self-advertising, and sensationalism. In his will he endowed the Columbia University School of Journalism and established the Pulitzer Prizes.

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(born March 13, 1733, Birstall Fieldhead, near Leeds, Yorkshire, Eng.—died Feb. 6, 1804, Northumberland, Pa., U.S.) English theologian, political theorist, and physical scientist. He worked as a teacher and lecturer in various subjects before joining the ministry in 1767. His early scientific studies resulted in his History and Present State of Electricity (1767), which became a fundamental text in the field. His Essay on Government (1768) influenced later utilitarianism. He did important work in the field of chemical reactions and change. He is considered the discoverer of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, and several other gases, and in 1774 he became the first to identify oxygen; his report led Antoine Lavoisier to repeat the experiment, deduce oxygen's nature and role, and name it. His theological works include History of the Corruptions of the Christian Church (1782), burned as sacrilegious in 1785, and A General History of the Christian Church, 6 vol. (1790–1802). His nonconformist religious views and his political activities, particularly in support of the French Revolution, made him increasingly controversial in England, and he immigrated to the U.S. in 1794.

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(born Sept. 13, 1860, Laclede, Mo., U.S.—died July 15, 1948, Washington, D.C.) U.S. army officer. He graduated from West Point and served on the western frontier (1886–98), in the Spanish-American War, in the Philippines (1899–1903, 1906–13), and as commander of a punitive raid against Pancho Villa (1916). During World War I he was appointed commander in chief of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). He maintained the AEF as an independent army of two million men and resisted Allied efforts to use U.S. forces as replacement units for French and British troops. He led the successful assault of the St. Mihiel salient in September 1918 and helped defeat German forces in the Meuse-Argonne offensive. He was promoted to general of the armies in 1919 and was army chief of staff from 1921 to 1924. His nickname, “Black Jack,” derived from his service with an African American regiment early in his career (see buffalo soldier). His memoirs, My Experiences in the World War (1931), won a Pulitzer Prize.

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(born Aug. 18, 1810, Lyon, Fr.—died Aug. 24, 1892, Paramé) French dancer and choreographer. After studying with Auguste Vestris, he debuted at the Paris Opéra in 1830. He often partnered Marie Taglioni until 1835, when he left the company to tour in Europe. He choreographed several ballets for Carlotta Grisi, probably including the famous solos in Giselle. As dancer and ballet master in London (1842–48) and St. Petersburg (1848–58), he choreographed many important Romantic ballets with an expressive, dramatic style. In his later years he gave classes at the Paris Opéra.

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(born July 22, 1872, St. Joseph, Mo., U.S.—died Jan. 26, 1945, Kansas City, Mo.) U.S. politician. He was active in municipal politics in Kansas City, Mo., and became the political boss of the city's Democrats by 1916. His political machine dominated city and state politics for almost 25 years and influenced national Democratic conventions. He helped Harry S. Truman in his early political career. Attacked by opponents for allowing corrupt practices in Kansas City, he was convicted of income-tax evasion in 1939 and served one year in prison.

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orig. Joseph Papirofsky

(born June 22, 1921, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—died Oct. 31, 1991, New York, N.Y.) U.S. theatrical producer and director. He studied acting and directing and worked as a stage manager for CBS television. In 1954 he founded the New York Shakespeare Festival, which gave free performances of Shakespeare's plays in city parks. He produced and directed most of the plays; in 1962 the Delacorte Theatre in Central Park was built as the company's permanent home. In 1967 he founded the New York Shakespeare Festival Public Theatre, which concentrated on contemporary and experimental dramas. Several productions traveled to Broadway, including Hair (1967) and A Chorus Line (1975). Papp remained one of Off-Broadway's most active producers into the 1980s. He served as artistic director of the Shakespeare Festival and the Public Theatre until his death.

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(born Oct. 7, 1786, Montreal, Que.—died Sept. 23, 1871, Montebello, Que., Can.) Canadian politician. He was elected to the legislative assembly of Lower Canada (now Quebec) in 1808 and became its speaker in 1815. A leader of the French-Canadian Party, he opposed the British-dominated government of Lower Canada. In 1834 he helped draft the 92 Resolutions, a statement of French-Canadian demands and grievances. When the British governor rejected the resolutions, hostilities broke out. Papineau escaped to the U.S. and then to France, where he lived from 1839 to 1844. He returned to Canada under an amnesty in 1844 and served in the Canadian House of Commons from 1848 to 1854, though he never regained his leadership of the French-Canadians.

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(born April 8, 1892, Vienna, Austria—died April 16, 1970, Wuppertal, W.Ger.) Austrian-born U.S. architect. Educated in Vienna and Zürich, Neutra moved to the U.S. in 1923. His most important early work was the Lovell House, Los Angeles (1927–29), which features glass expanses and cable-suspended balconies. Shortly after World War II, Neutra created his most memorable works: the Kaufmann Desert House, Palm Springs, Calif. (1946–47), and the Tremaine House, Santa Barbara, Calif. (1947–48). Elegant and precise, these houses are considered exceptionally fine examples of the International Style, which Neutra helped introduce into the U.S. Carefully placed in the landscape, Neutra's houses often have patios or porches that make the outdoors seem part of the house. He believed that architecture should be a means of bringing man back into harmony with nature and with himself and was particularly concerned that his houses reflect the way of life of the owner. His later works included office buildings, churches, housing projects, and cultural centres. His many writings include Survival Through Design (1954).

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(born Dec. 21, 1890, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died April 5, 1967, Indianapolis, Ind.) U.S. geneticist. He attended Columbia University. The possibility of consciously guiding human evolution provided the initial motivation for his research, leading him to work in the Soviet Union's Institute of Genetics. He later assisted the Republican forces in the Spanish Civil War before returning to the U.S. in 1940; he thereafter taught principally at Indiana University (1945–67). In 1926 he first induced genetic mutations through the use of X rays, and he demonstrated that mutations are the result of breakages in chromosomes and of changes in individual genes. His receipt of the Nobel Prize in 1946 increased his opportunities to publicize the dangers posed by accumulating spontaneous mutations in the human gene pool as a result of industrial processes and radiation, and he devoted much energy to increasing public awareness of the genetic dangers of radiation.

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known as Mike Mansfield

(born March 16, 1903, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died Oct. 5, 2001, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician who was the longest-serving majority leader (1961–77) in the U.S. Senate. He worked in Montana copper mines and later taught history at Montana State University. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1943 to 1953 and in the Senate from 1953 to 1977. An outspoken critic of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, he sponsored a 1971 bill calling for a cease-fire and phased withdrawal. He was a persistent critic of Pres. Richard Nixon, especially during the Watergate scandal. After retiring, he served as U.S. ambassador to Japan (1977–88).

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(born Aug. 29, 1958, Gary, Ind., U.S.) U.S. singer and songwriter. The nine-year-old Jackson became the lead singer of the Jackson 5, a family group formed by his father. Their hits on the Motown label included “I Want You Back” and “ABC.” Though Michael remained a member of the group until 1984, he began recording under his own name in 1971. His album Off the Wall (1979) sold millions; his next solo album, Thriller (1982), sold more than 40 million copies, becoming the best-selling album in history. The emerging format of the music video was an important aspect of Jackson's work; his videos for “Beat It” and “Billie Jean” (both 1983) featured his highly influential dancing style (notably his trademark “moonwalk”). He later released the albums Bad (1987), Dangerous (1991), and HIStory (1995). Despite his many efforts to speak out on social issues, Jackson's eccentric, secluded lifestyle stirred controversy in the early 1990s. His reputation was seriously damaged in 1993 when he was accused of child molestation by a 13-year-old boy; a civil suit was settled out of court. In 2003 Jackson was arrested on charges of child molestation; he was acquitted in 2005. His numerous honours include induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Jackson 5 (1997) and as a solo performer (2001). Several of his siblings, notably his sister Janet (b. 1966), have also enjoyed solo success.

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(born April 6, 1823, near Saint John, N.B., Can.—died March 16, 1899, San Antonio, Texas, U.S.) Canadian-born U.S. editor and publisher. Born into a family of shipbuilders, he studied law in the U.S. and was admitted to the bar in 1846. He turned to newspaper publishing in 1849. As managing editor of the Chicago Tribune (from 1855), he set its antislavery editorial policy. He helped found the Republican Party (1854) and worked for Abraham Lincoln's nomination. As mayor of Chicago (1871–74), he helped establish the Chicago Public Library (1872–74). In 1874 he resigned as mayor and acquired a controlling share in the Chicago Tribune. Four of his grandchildren, including Robert McCormick, also ran newspapers.

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(born April 7, 1873, Truxton, N.Y., U.S.—died Feb. 25, 1934, New Rochelle, N.Y.) U.S. baseball player and manager. McGraw was a star infielder for the Baltimore National League team in the 1890s. His batting average of .391 in 1899 remains the highest ever for a third baseman. As manager of the New York Giants (1902–32), he led the team to 10 National League championships and 3 World Series h1s (1905, 1921, 1922). For his shrewdness and veneer of harshness, he acquired the nickname “Little Napoleon.”

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(born March 29, 1916, Watkins, Minn., U.S.—died Dec. 10, 2005, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician. He taught at the College of St. Thomas in St. Paul, Minn., before being elected to the U.S. House of Representatives (1949–59) and later the Senate (1959–71). A liberal Democrat, he became an outspoken critic of the Vietnam War. In 1968 he ran for the Democratic Party presidential nomination. His initial successes convinced Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson not to seek reelection. After losing the nomination to Hubert H. Humphrey, McCarthy decided not to run for reelection to the Senate. He made another unsuccessful attempt at the Democratic nomination in 1972 and ran unsuccessfully for president as an independent in 1976. His presidential bids in 1988 and 1992 also failed.

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known as Mike Mansfield

(born March 16, 1903, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died Oct. 5, 2001, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician who was the longest-serving majority leader (1961–77) in the U.S. Senate. He worked in Montana copper mines and later taught history at Montana State University. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1943 to 1953 and in the Senate from 1953 to 1977. An outspoken critic of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, he sponsored a 1971 bill calling for a cease-fire and phased withdrawal. He was a persistent critic of Pres. Richard Nixon, especially during the Watergate scandal. After retiring, he served as U.S. ambassador to Japan (1977–88).

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(born April 1, 1753, Chambéry, France—died Feb. 26, 1821, Turin, kingdom of Sardinia) French polemical writer and diplomat. A member of the Savoy senate, he moved to Switzerland after the French invasion of Savoy in 1792. He served under the king of Sardinia as envoy to Russia (1803–17), then settled in Turin as chief magistrate and minister of state of the Sardinian kingdom. He was an exponent of the absolutist, conservative tradition and opposed the progress of science and liberal beliefs in such works as Essay on the Generative Principle of Political Constitutions (1814), On the Pope (1819), and The St. Petersburg Dialogues (1821). It was as a logical thinker, pursuing consequences from an accepted premise, that Maistre excelled.

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(born Oct. 7, 1786, Montreal, Que.—died Sept. 23, 1871, Montebello, Que., Can.) Canadian politician. He was elected to the legislative assembly of Lower Canada (now Quebec) in 1808 and became its speaker in 1815. A leader of the French-Canadian Party, he opposed the British-dominated government of Lower Canada. In 1834 he helped draft the 92 Resolutions, a statement of French-Canadian demands and grievances. When the British governor rejected the resolutions, hostilities broke out. Papineau escaped to the U.S. and then to France, where he lived from 1839 to 1844. He returned to Canada under an amnesty in 1844 and served in the Canadian House of Commons from 1848 to 1854, though he never regained his leadership of the French-Canadians.

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(born June 30, 1893, Manchester, Eng.—died March 24, 1950, London) British political scientist, educator, and political leader. Educated at the University of Oxford, he taught at McGill University and Harvard University before returning to Britain to work for the Labour Party. He later taught at the London School of Economics (1926–50). He argued in works such as The State in Theory and Practice (1935) that the economic difficulties of capitalism might lead to the destruction of political democracy, and he came to view socialism as the only alternative to fascism. He was an assistant to Clement R. Attlee during World War II.

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(born March 12, 1922, Camden, S.C., U.S.—died Aug. 14, 1999, Washington, D.C.) U.S. labour-union leader. He served as an officer in the U.S. merchant marine and joined the American Federation of Labor (AFL) as a staff researcher in 1948. He was elected secretary-treasurer of the AFL-CIO in 1969 and succeeded George Meany as president in 1979. During Kirkland's tenure (1979–95), the AFL-CIO's membership and political influence waned due to shrinking employment in the U.S. manufacturing sector.

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(born Dec. 30, 1865, Bombay, India—died Jan. 18, 1936, London, Eng.) Indian-born British novelist, short-story writer, and poet. The son of a museum curator, he was reared in England but returned to India as a journalist. He soon became famous for volumes of stories, beginning with Plain Tales from the Hills (1888; including “The Man Who Would Be King”), and later for the poetry collection Barrack-Room Ballads (1892; including “Gunga Din” and “Mandalay”). His poems, often strongly rhythmic, are frequently narrative ballads. During a residence in the U.S., he published a novel, The Light That Failed (1890); the two Jungle Books (1894, 1895), stories of the wild boy Mowgli in the Indian jungle that have become children's classics; the adventure story Captains Courageous (1897); and Kim (1901), one of the great novels of India. He wrote six other volumes of short stories and several other verse collections. His children's books include the famous Just So Stories (1902) and the fairy-tale collection Puck of Pook's Hill (1906). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1907. His extraordinary popularity in his own time declined as his reputation suffered after World War I because of his widespread image as a jingoistic imperialist.

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(born Aug. 23, 1921, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. economist. He received his Ph.D. from Columbia University and taught principally at Stanford and Harvard. Arrow's books include Social Choices and Individual Values (1951). His most striking claim was that, under certain conditions of rationality and equality, a ranking of societal preferences will not necessarily correspond to the rankings of individual preferences, given more than two individuals and alternative choices. In 1972 he shared the Nobel Prize with John R. Hicks.

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(born Sept. 6, 1888, Boston, Mass., U.S.—died Nov. 18, 1969, Hyannis Port, Mass.) U.S. businessman and financier. He graduated from Harvard University in 1912. He was a bank president by age 25 and a millionaire at age 30. He became a shipbuilder, a motion-picture tycoon, and a large contributor to the Democratic Party. During the 1920s he acquired a large fortune by speculating in the stock market; he is also alleged to have traded in bootleg liquor during Prohibition. Later, as chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission (1934–35), he outlawed the speculative practices, including insider trading and stock manipulation, that had made him rich. He was the first Irish American to serve as ambassador to Britain (1937–40). With his wife, Rose, he encouraged academic and athletic competitiveness in his children and expected the boys in the family—including John F. Kennedy, Robert F. Kennedy, and Edward Kennedy—to pursue careers in public service. His role in John Kennedy's narrow victory over Richard Nixon in the 1960 presidential election has long been the subject of controversy.

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(born 1910?, Tshela, Belgian Congo—died March 24, 1969, Boma) First president (1960–65) of independent Congo (Kinshasa). He held a variety of administrative posts before agreeing to serve as president in Patrice Lumumba's government. When Katanga province under Moise Tshombe seceded a few days after independence, Kasavubu threw his support to Tshombe and, together with Col. J. Mobutu (see Mobutu Sese Seko), ousted Lumumba. Four years later a split between Kasavubu and Tshombe enabled Mobutu to seize control.

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(born 1488, Spain—died March 24, 1575, Safed, Palestine) Spanish-born Jewish scholar. When the Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, he and his parents settled in Turkey. Around 1536 he emigrated to Safed in Palestine, where he studied the Talmud and systematized the vast body of material produced by post-Talmudic writers. He was the author of the last great codification of Jewish law, the House of Joseph, which was later condensed as The Well-Laid Table and is still authoritative for Orthodox Judaism.

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(born Aug. 18, 1810, Lyon, Fr.—died Aug. 24, 1892, Paramé) French dancer and choreographer. After studying with Auguste Vestris, he debuted at the Paris Opéra in 1830. He often partnered Marie Taglioni until 1835, when he left the company to tour in Europe. He choreographed several ballets for Carlotta Grisi, probably including the famous solos in Giselle. As dancer and ballet master in London (1842–48) and St. Petersburg (1848–58), he choreographed many important Romantic ballets with an expressive, dramatic style. In his later years he gave classes at the Paris Opéra.

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orig. François-Joseph le Clerc du Tremblay

(born Nov. 4, 1577, Paris, France—died Dec. 18, 1638, Rueil) French mystic and religious reformer. He joined the Capuchins in 1599. His fervent ambition to convert European Protestants to Roman Catholicism coincided with cardinal de Richelieu's plans for French domination of Europe, and he became Richelieu's secretary in 1611. He became known as the “Gray Eminence” (for his gray Capuchin cloak), and his close collaboration with Richelieu (the “Red Eminence”) gave him powers akin to those of a foreign minister, especially during Richelieu's campaign to finance France's participation in the Thirty Years' War, which Joseph's policies did much to bring about.

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(born April 1, 1753, Chambéry, France—died Feb. 26, 1821, Turin, kingdom of Sardinia) French polemical writer and diplomat. A member of the Savoy senate, he moved to Switzerland after the French invasion of Savoy in 1792. He served under the king of Sardinia as envoy to Russia (1803–17), then settled in Turin as chief magistrate and minister of state of the Sardinian kingdom. He was an exponent of the absolutist, conservative tradition and opposed the progress of science and liberal beliefs in such works as Essay on the Generative Principle of Political Constitutions (1814), On the Pope (1819), and The St. Petersburg Dialogues (1821). It was as a logical thinker, pursuing consequences from an accepted premise, that Maistre excelled.

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(born 1488, Spain—died March 24, 1575, Safed, Palestine) Spanish-born Jewish scholar. When the Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, he and his parents settled in Turkey. Around 1536 he emigrated to Safed in Palestine, where he studied the Talmud and systematized the vast body of material produced by post-Talmudic writers. He was the author of the last great codification of Jewish law, the House of Joseph, which was later condensed as The Well-Laid Table and is still authoritative for Orthodox Judaism.

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(born March 19, 1883, Palatka, Fla., U.S.—died Oct. 12, 1946, San Francisco, Calif.) U.S. army officer. He graduated from West Point and served in World War I. He studied Chinese and served in Tianjin (1926–29) and as a military attaché in Beijing (1935–39). At the outbreak of World War II, he became chief of staff to Gen. Chiang Kai-shek and commanded Chinese armies in Burma (1939–42). He became commander of U.S. forces in China, Burma, and India and oversaw construction of the Ledo, or Stilwell, Road, a strategic military link with the Burma Road. Promoted to general (1944), he commanded the U.S. 10th Army in the Pacific (1945–46).

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(born June 11, 1741, Roxbury, Mass.—died June 17, 1775, Bunker Hill, Mass.) American Revolutionary leader. He was a physician in Boston. He was active in patriot causes after passage of the Stamp Act (1765) and helped draft the Massachusetts colonial grievances called the Suffolk Resolves (1774). As a member of the Massachusetts Committee of Public Safety, he sent Paul Revere on his ride to Lexington. He was made a major general in the Revolutionary army and died in the Battle of Bunker Hill.

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(born Sept. 18, 1779, Marblehead, Mass., U.S.—died Sept. 10, 1845, Cambridge, Mass.) U.S. jurist. After graduating from Harvard University, he practiced law in Salem, Mass. (1801–11) and served in the state legislature and U.S. Congress (1805–11). In 1811, though he was only 32 and lacked any judicial experience, he was appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States by Pres. James Madison. There he joined John Marshall in interpreting the U.S. Constitution in a manner favouring the expansion of federal power. His opinion in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee (1816) established the court's appellate authority over the highest state courts. During his tenure on the court, he taught at Harvard (1829–45), where he became the first Dane Professor of Law and whose endowment funded his influential series of commentaries, including Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States (1833), The Conflict of Laws (1834), and On Equity Jurisprudence (1836). He and James Kent are considered the founders of U.S. equity jurisprudence.

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orig. Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili

(born Dec. 21, 1879, Gori, Georgia, Russian Empire—died March 5, 1953, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet politician and dictator. The son of a cobbler, he studied at a seminary but was expelled for revolutionary activity in 1899. He joined an underground revolutionary group and sided with the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party in 1903. A disciple of Vladimir Lenin, he served in minor party posts and was appointed to the first Bolshevik Central Committee (1912). He remained active behind the scenes and in exile (1913–17) until the Russian Revolution of 1917 brought the Bolsheviks to power. Having adopted the name Stalin (from Russian stal, “steel”), he served as commissar for nationalities and for state control in the Bolshevik government (1917–23). He was a member of the Politburo, and in 1922 he became secretary-general of the party's Central Committee. After Lenin's death (1924), Stalin overcame his rivals, including Leon Trotsky, Grigory Zinovyev, Lev Kamenev, Nikolay Bukharin, and Aleksey Rykov, and took control of Soviet politics. In 1928 he inaugurated the Five-Year Plans that radically altered Soviet economic and social structures and resulted in the deaths of many millions. In the 1930s he contrived to eliminate threats to his power through the purge trials and through widespread secret executions and persecution. In World War II he signed the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (1939), attacked Finland (see Russo-Finnish War), and annexed parts of eastern Europe to strengthen his western frontiers. When Germany invaded Russia (1941), Stalin took control of military operations. He allied Russia with Britain and the U.S.; at the Tehrān, Yalta, and Potsdam conferences, he demonstrated his negotiating skill. After the war he consolidated Soviet power in eastern Europe and built up the Soviet Union as a world military power. He continued his repressive political measures to control internal dissent; increasingly paranoid, he was preparing to mount another purge after the so-called Doctors' Plot when he died. Noted for bringing the Soviet Union into world prominence, at terrible cost to his own people, he left a legacy of repression and fear as well as industrial and military power. In 1956 Stalin and his personality cult were denounced by Nikita Khrushchev.

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(born Dec. 23, 1805, Sharon, Vt., U.S.—died June 27, 1844, Carthage, Ill.) Founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon church). He began experiencing visions as a teenager in Palmyra, N.Y. In 1827 he claimed that an angel had directed him to buried golden plates containing God's revelation; these he translated into the Book of Mormon (1830). He led converts to Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois, where he established the town of Nauvoo (1839), which soon became the state's largest town. Imprisoned for treason after his efforts to silence Mormon dissenters led to mob violence, he was murdered by a lynch mob that stormed the jail where he was held. His work was continued by Brigham Young.

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(born April 10, 1847, Makó, Hung.—died Oct. 29, 1911, Charleston, S.C., U.S.) Hungarian-born U.S. newspaper editor and publisher. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1864 to serve in the American Civil War. After the war he became a reporter and then proprietor at German-language newspapers in St. Louis and entered Missouri politics. In 1878 he merged the St. Louis Dispatch (founded 1864) and the Post (founded 1875) into the Post-Dispatch, which soon became the city's dominant evening newspaper. Shifting his interests to New York City, he purchased the World (1883) and founded the Evening World (1887). He helped establish the pattern of the modern newspaper by combining exposés of political corruption and crusading investigative reporting with publicity stunts, self-advertising, and sensationalism. In his will he endowed the Columbia University School of Journalism and established the Pulitzer Prizes.

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(born March 13, 1733, Birstall Fieldhead, near Leeds, Yorkshire, Eng.—died Feb. 6, 1804, Northumberland, Pa., U.S.) English theologian, political theorist, and physical scientist. He worked as a teacher and lecturer in various subjects before joining the ministry in 1767. His early scientific studies resulted in his History and Present State of Electricity (1767), which became a fundamental text in the field. His Essay on Government (1768) influenced later utilitarianism. He did important work in the field of chemical reactions and change. He is considered the discoverer of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, and several other gases, and in 1774 he became the first to identify oxygen; his report led Antoine Lavoisier to repeat the experiment, deduce oxygen's nature and role, and name it. His theological works include History of the Corruptions of the Christian Church (1782), burned as sacrilegious in 1785, and A General History of the Christian Church, 6 vol. (1790–1802). His nonconformist religious views and his political activities, particularly in support of the French Revolution, made him increasingly controversial in England, and he immigrated to the U.S. in 1794.

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(born Sept. 6, 1888, Boston, Mass., U.S.—died Nov. 18, 1969, Hyannis Port, Mass.) U.S. businessman and financier. He graduated from Harvard University in 1912. He was a bank president by age 25 and a millionaire at age 30. He became a shipbuilder, a motion-picture tycoon, and a large contributor to the Democratic Party. During the 1920s he acquired a large fortune by speculating in the stock market; he is also alleged to have traded in bootleg liquor during Prohibition. Later, as chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission (1934–35), he outlawed the speculative practices, including insider trading and stock manipulation, that had made him rich. He was the first Irish American to serve as ambassador to Britain (1937–40). With his wife, Rose, he encouraged academic and athletic competitiveness in his children and expected the boys in the family—including John F. Kennedy, Robert F. Kennedy, and Edward Kennedy—to pursue careers in public service. His role in John Kennedy's narrow victory over Richard Nixon in the 1960 presidential election has long been the subject of controversy.

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orig. Joseph Papirofsky

(born June 22, 1921, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—died Oct. 31, 1991, New York, N.Y.) U.S. theatrical producer and director. He studied acting and directing and worked as a stage manager for CBS television. In 1954 he founded the New York Shakespeare Festival, which gave free performances of Shakespeare's plays in city parks. He produced and directed most of the plays; in 1962 the Delacorte Theatre in Central Park was built as the company's permanent home. In 1967 he founded the New York Shakespeare Festival Public Theatre, which concentrated on contemporary and experimental dramas. Several productions traveled to Broadway, including Hair (1967) and A Chorus Line (1975). Papp remained one of Off-Broadway's most active producers into the 1980s. He served as artistic director of the Shakespeare Festival and the Public Theatre until his death.

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(born April 6, 1823, near Saint John, N.B., Can.—died March 16, 1899, San Antonio, Texas, U.S.) Canadian-born U.S. editor and publisher. Born into a family of shipbuilders, he studied law in the U.S. and was admitted to the bar in 1846. He turned to newspaper publishing in 1849. As managing editor of the Chicago Tribune (from 1855), he set its antislavery editorial policy. He helped found the Republican Party (1854) and worked for Abraham Lincoln's nomination. As mayor of Chicago (1871–74), he helped establish the Chicago Public Library (1872–74). In 1874 he resigned as mayor and acquired a controlling share in the Chicago Tribune. Four of his grandchildren, including Robert McCormick, also ran newspapers.

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(born April 23, 1775, London, Eng.—died Dec. 19, 1851, London) British landscape painter. The son of a barber, he entered the Royal Academy school in 1789. In 1802 he became a full academician and in 1807 was appointed professor of perspective. His early work was concerned with accurate depictions of places, but he soon learned from Richard Wilson to take a more poetic and imaginative approach. The Shipwreck (1805) shows his new emphasis on luminosity, atmosphere, and Romantic, dramatic subjects. After a trip to Italy in 1819, his colour became purer and more prismatic, with a general heightening of key. In later paintings, such as Sunrise, with a Boat Between Headlands (1845), architectural and natural details are sacrificed to effects of colour and light, with only the barest indication of mass. His compositions became more fluid, suggesting movement and space. In breaking down conventional formulas of representation, he anticipated French Impressionism. His immense reputation in the 19th century was due largely to John Ruskin's enthusiasm for his early works; 20th-century critics celebrated the abstract qualities of his late colour compositions.

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(born 1910?, Tshela, Belgian Congo—died March 24, 1969, Boma) First president (1960–65) of independent Congo (Kinshasa). He held a variety of administrative posts before agreeing to serve as president in Patrice Lumumba's government. When Katanga province under Moise Tshombe seceded a few days after independence, Kasavubu threw his support to Tshombe and, together with Col. J. Mobutu (see Mobutu Sese Seko), ousted Lumumba. Four years later a split between Kasavubu and Tshombe enabled Mobutu to seize control.

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(born June 28, 1831, Kittsee, near Pressburg, Austria-Hungary—died Aug. 15, 1907, Berlin, German Empire) Austro-Hungarian violinist. A prodigy, he began study as a child in Pest, continuing later in Vienna and Leipzig, where he was associated with Felix Mendelssohn. He was concertmaster at Weimar under Franz Liszt (1850–52), but their tastes in music diverged radically. He became close to Johannes Brahms, who sought Joachim's advice about his violin concerto. Joachim wrote cadenzas that are still used for a number of concertos. As the longtime head of Berlin's Hochschule (1868–1905), he developed it into a first-rank conservatory.

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(born March 13, 1741, Vienna—died Feb. 20, 1790, Vienna) Holy Roman emperor (1765–90). He succeeded his father, Francis I, and initially coruled with his mother, Maria Theresa (1765–80). After his mother's death he tried to continue her work of reform. Considered a practicioner of “enlightened despotism,” he abolished serfdom, established religious equality before the law, granted freedom of the press, and emancipated the Jews. He came into conflict with the Roman Catholic church by attempting to impose state controls over it, and traditional countries such as the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary resisted his far-reaching reforms. His foreign policies were generally failures; he tried to exchange the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria but was stopped by Prussia. An alliance with Catherine II of Russia engaged Austrian troops in a war with Turkey, but Joseph had to return home to head off revolutionary unrest in Hungary and the Austrian Netherlands.

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(born Nov. 13, 1814, Hadley, Mass., U.S.—died Oct. 31, 1879, Garden City, N.Y.) U.S. Army officer. He attended West Point and served in the Mexican War. Appointed brigadier general of volunteers at the outbreak of the American Civil War, he participated in major campaigns and became known as “Fighting Joe.” He succeeded Ambrose E. Burnside as commander of the Army of the Potomac after the disastrous Battle of Fredericksburg. He reorganized the army but failed to defeat Robert E. Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville, incurring heavy Union casualties. He resigned just before the Battle of Gettysburg but later helped secure the Union victory at the Battle of Chattanooga.

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(born Dec. 17, 1797, Albany, N.Y., U.S.—died May 13, 1878, Washington, D.C.) U.S. physicist. He aided Samuel F.B. Morse in developing the telegraph. He discovered several important principles of electricity, including self-induction. He observed electromagnetic induction a year before Michael Faraday announced its discovery. He made improvements to electromagnets, discovered the laws on which the transformer is based, investigated electric discharge, and demonstrated that sunspots radiate less heat than the general solar surface. In 1846 he became the first secretary and director of the Smithsonian Institution, where he organized a corps of volunteer weather observers that led to creation of the U.S. Weather Bureau. He was a chief technical adviser to Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War and a primary organizer of the National Academy of Science. In 1893 the standard unit of electrical inductance, the henry, was named in his honour.

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(born May 1, 1923, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—died Dec. 12, 1999, East Hampton, N.Y.) U.S. writer. Heller flew 60 combat missions as a bombardier in World War II before finishing his studies at Columbia and Oxford and working as an advertising copywriter. His satirical novel Catch-22 (1961), based on his wartime experiences, was one of the most significant works of postwar protest literature and a huge critical and popular success. His later novels include Something Happened (1974), Good as Gold (1979), God Knows (1984), and Closing Time (1994).

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(born May 28, 1915, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died May 7, 2001, Stanford, Calif.) U.S. anthropologist and linguist. He received his Ph.D. from Northwestern University. He eschewed more orthodox methods of historical linguistics for the approach he termed “mass” or “multilateral” comparison, which involved looking for phonetic resemblances among words in many languages simultaneously. His 1963 classification of African languages into four families (Afroasiatic, Niger-Congo, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan) was widely accepted. However, his 1987 classification of all American Indian languages into just two families, Amerind and Na-Dene (see Athabaskan languages) provoked a rancorous denunciation by specialists, who faulted both his data and his method.

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(born May 7, 1836, Guilford county, N.C., U.S.—died Nov. 12, 1926, Danville, Ill.) U.S. politician. He began practicing law in Illinois in 1859. Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1872, he served 46 years (1873–91, 1893–1913, 1915–23). A staunchly conservative Republican, he used his power as speaker (1903–11) in a partisan manner. In 1910 a coalition of Democrats and insurgent Republicans passed a resolution that made the speaker ineligible for membership on the rules committee, the main source of his power. Personally well liked, he was popularly known as “Uncle Joe.”

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(born Oct. 29, 1897, Rheydt, Ger.—died May 1, 1945, Berlin) German Nazi leader. After earning a doctorate from Heidelberg University, he joined the Nazi Party and was appointed district leader in Berlin by Adolf Hitler in 1926. A gifted speaker, Goebbels also edited the party's journal and began to create the Führer myth around Hitler, instituting the party demonstrations that helped convert the masses to Nazism. After Hitler seized power in 1933, Goebbels took control of the national propaganda machinery. During World War II he carried on a personal propaganda blitz to raise hopes on the home front. Named chancellor in Hitler's will, he remained with Hitler to the end. One day after Hitler's suicide, Goebbels and his wife killed themselves and their six children.

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(born circa 1731, West River, Md.—died Aug. 29, 1803, Watford, Hertfordshire, Eng.) American colonial lawyer and legislator. Entering law practice in Philadelphia in 1747, Galloway won a reputation by pleading cases before the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania before he was 20. He was elected to the colonial legislature in 1756 and served as speaker from 1766 to 1775. A loyalist, he opposed the independence of the colonies; his plan for a peaceful resolution of the conflict with Britain was narrowly rejected by the Continental Congress. During the American Revolution Galloway joined the British army under William Howe, becoming a civil administrator of Philadelphia during the British occupation of the city. When the Continental Army reentered Philadelphia in 1778, he fled to England.

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(born Feb. 3, 1807, near Farmville, Va., U.S.—died March 21, 1891, Washington, D.C.) U.S. Army officer. He graduated from West Point and served in the Mexican War. At the start of the American Civil War he resigned his commission to serve the Confederacy. Appointed brigadier general, he won the first Confederate victory at the Battle of Bull Run. He was promoted to general but remained at odds with Confederate Pres. Jefferson Davis. He defended Richmond in the Peninsular Campaign and was badly wounded at the Battle of Fair Oaks (1862). In 1863 he was sent to conduct the Vicksburg Campaign. His order to evacuate the city was countermanded by Davis, but Johnston was blamed for the city's fall. As commander of the Army of the Tennessee, he avoided defeat as the Union advanced toward Atlanta, Ga., but he was removed from command for failing to defeat the invaders. Restored to duty in 1865, he was forced to surrender to William T. Sherman.

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(born Dec. 24, 1903, Nyack, N.Y., U.S.—died Dec. 29, 1972, New York, N.Y.) U.S. assemblage artist. He had no formal artistic training. In the 1930s and '40s he was associated with the Surrealists in New York City (see Surrealism). He was an originator of the assemblage; his most distinctive works were “boxes,” usually with glass fronts, containing objects and pieces of collage arranged in elegant but enigmatic compositions. Recurrent motifs include astronomy, music, birds, seashells, glamour photographs, and souvenirs of travel. His appeal rested on the Surrealist technique of irrational juxtaposition and on nostalgia.

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orig. Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski

(born Dec. 3, 1857, Berdichev, Ukraine, Russian Empire—died Aug. 3, 1924, Canterbury, Kent, Eng.) Polish-British novelist and short-story writer. His father was a Polish patriot who was exiled to northern Russia, and Conrad was an orphan by age 12. He managed to join the French merchant marine and in 1878 the British merchant navy, where he pursued a career for most of the next 15 years; his naval experiences would provide the material for most of his novels. Though he knew little English before he was 20, he became one of the master English stylists. He is noted for tales in rich prose of dangerous life at sea and in exotic places, settings he used to reveal his real concern, his deeply pessimistic vision of the human struggle. Of his many novels, which include Almayer's Folly (1895), The Nigger of the “Narcissus” (1897), Lord Jim (1900), Nostromo (1904), The Secret Agent (1907), and Under Western Eyes (1911), several are regarded as masterpieces. He also published seven story collections; the novella “Heart of Darkness” (1902) is his most famous shorter work and the basis for Francis Ford Coppola's film Apocalypse Now (1979). Conrad's influence on later novelists has been profound.

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(born July 8, 1836, London, Eng.—died July 2, 1914, London) British politician and reformer. Early success in business enabled him to retire at age 38 with a substantial fortune. He was elected to Parliament (1876–1906), where he became a leader of the left wing of the Liberal Party. In 1886, in opposition to Irish Home Rule, he joined other dissident Liberals (Liberal Unionists) to defeat the Liberal government. He used his control of the Liberal Unionists to pressure the subsequent Conservative government to adopt a more progressive social policy. As colonial secretary (1895–1903), he advocated tax reform and a federated empire of self-governing colonies, helping pass the Commonwealth of Australia bill (1900). He resigned when his proposals for a tariff giving preference to imperial products were rebuffed by the government.

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(born March 30, 1863, Le Mans, France—died Nov. 22, 1944, Mamers) French politician. Serving several times as minister of finance, he was an early but unsuccessful advocate of a national income tax. He was named premier in 1911 but was forced to resign after negotiating a controversial treaty with Germany over the second of the Moroccan crises. Later his opposition to World War I and friendship with German agents led to conviction on charges of corresponding with the enemy. Granted amnesty in 1924, he was later elected to the Senate and became head of the Commission of Finance (1927–40).

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(born May 18, 1692, Wantage, Berkshire, Eng.—died June 16, 1752, Bath, Somerset) British bishop and moral philosopher. He became dean of St. Paul's Cathedral in 1740 and bishop of Durham in 1750. His works defended revealed religion against the rationalist thinkers of his time. His The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature (1736) attacked the doctrine of Deism, according to which knowledge of God is acquired through reason rather than revelation. His Of the Nature of Virtue, appended to the Analogy, presented a refutation of hedonism and of the notion that self-interest is the ultimate principle of good conduct.

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orig. Iosip Aleksandrovich Brodsky

(born May 24, 1940, Leningrad, Russia, U.S.S.R.—died Jan. 28, 1996, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Russian-born U.S. poet. In the Soviet Union his independent spirit and irregular work record led to a five-year sentence to hard labour. Exiled in 1972, he settled in New York. He was poet laureate of the U.S. from 1991 to 1992. His lyric and elegiac poems ponder the universal concerns of life, death, and the meaning of existence. Brodsky's poetry collections include A Part of Speech (1980), History of the Twentieth Century (1986), and To Urania (1988). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1987.

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(born 1742, banks of the Ohio River—died Nov. 24, 1807, near Brantford, Ont., Can.) Mohawk Indian chief and Christian missionary. Brant was converted to the Anglican church while attending a school for Indians in Connecticut. He fought for the British in the last French and Indian War (1754–63). He led four of the six Iroquois nations on the British side in the American Revolution, winning several notable battles. After the war Brant was granted land along the Grand River in Ontario, Can., where he ruled peacefully and continued his missionary work.

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(born April 13, 1748, Stainborough, Yorkshire, Eng.—died Dec. 9, 1814, London) British engineer and inventor. Originally a cabinetmaker, Bramah in 1784 devised a pick-proof lock, which defied all efforts for 67 years. Since the success of his locks depended on their complexity, they could be produced in quantity only after the creation of a set of well-designed and precisely engineered machine tools, for which he hired a brilliant young blacksmith, Henry Maudslay. Their prototype machines were essential to the founding of the machine-tool industry. Bramah's hydraulic press found many industrial uses and led to the development of hydraulic machinery.

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(born May 12, 1921, Krefeld, Ger.—died Jan. 23, 1986, Düsseldorf, W.Ger.) German avant-garde sculptor and performance artist. He served in the German air force in World War II and later studied art in Düsseldorf (1947–51); in 1961 he was appointed professor of sculpture at its art academy. In the 1960s he worked with the international group Fluxus, whose emphasis was not on what an artist makes but on his or her personality, actions, and opinions. Beuys's most famous and controversial performance was How to Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare (1965), in which he walked around an art gallery with his face covered in honey and gold leaf, talking to a dead hare about human and animal consciousness. He also became known for sculptural works that utilized fat and layers of felt. He succeeded in creating a popular personal mythology and was one of the most influential artists and teachers of the later 20th century.

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(born Feb. 8, 1883, Triesch, Moravia—died Jan. 8, 1950, Taconic, Conn., U.S.) Moravian-U.S. economist and sociologist. Educated in Austria, he taught at several European universities before joining the faculty of Harvard University (1932–50). He became known for his theories of capitalist development and the business cycle. His popular book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (1942) argued that capitalism would eventually perish of its own success. His posthumous History of Economic Analysis (1954) is an exhaustive study of the development of analytic methods in economics.

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(born May 1, 1672, Milston, Wiltshire, Eng.—died June 17, 1719, London) English essayist, poet, and dramatist. His poem on the Battle of Blenheim, The Campaign (1705), brought him to the attention of leading Whigs and paved the way to important government posts (including secretary of state) and literary fame. With Richard Steele, he was a leading contributor to and guiding spirit of the periodicals The Tatler (1709–11) and The Spectator (1711–12, 1714). One of the most admired masters of English prose, he brought to perfection the periodical essay. His Cato (1713), a highly successful play with political overtones, is one of the important tragedies of the 18th century.

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(born March 30, 1863, Le Mans, France—died Nov. 22, 1944, Mamers) French politician. Serving several times as minister of finance, he was an early but unsuccessful advocate of a national income tax. He was named premier in 1911 but was forced to resign after negotiating a controversial treaty with Germany over the second of the Moroccan crises. Later his opposition to World War I and friendship with German agents led to conviction on charges of corresponding with the enemy. Granted amnesty in 1924, he was later elected to the Senate and became head of the Commission of Finance (1927–40).

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In the Old Testament, the son of the patriarch Jacob and his wife, Rachel. He was favoured by his father, and his brothers became bitterly jealous when he was given a resplendent “coat of many colors” (literally, coat with flowing sleeves). They sold him into slavery in Egypt, telling Jacob he had been killed by a wild beast. In Egypt Joseph gained favour with the pharaoh and rose to high office, owing to his ability to interpret dreams, and his acquisition of grain supplies enabled Egypt to withstand a famine. When famine forced Jacob to send his sons to Egypt to buy grain, the family was reconciled with Joseph and settled there. The story of Joseph, told in Genesis 37–50, depicts the preservation of Israel and begins the history of the Israelites in Egypt that is continued in Exodus.

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(born Feb. 3, 1807, near Farmville, Va., U.S.—died March 21, 1891, Washington, D.C.) U.S. Army officer. He graduated from West Point and served in the Mexican War. At the start of the American Civil War he resigned his commission to serve the Confederacy. Appointed brigadier general, he won the first Confederate victory at the Battle of Bull Run. He was promoted to general but remained at odds with Confederate Pres. Jefferson Davis. He defended Richmond in the Peninsular Campaign and was badly wounded at the Battle of Fair Oaks (1862). In 1863 he was sent to conduct the Vicksburg Campaign. His order to evacuate the city was countermanded by Davis, but Johnston was blamed for the city's fall. As commander of the Army of the Tennessee, he avoided defeat as the Union advanced toward Atlanta, Ga., but he was removed from command for failing to defeat the invaders. Restored to duty in 1865, he was forced to surrender to William T. Sherman.

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(born Sept. 13, 1860, Laclede, Mo., U.S.—died July 15, 1948, Washington, D.C.) U.S. army officer. He graduated from West Point and served on the western frontier (1886–98), in the Spanish-American War, in the Philippines (1899–1903, 1906–13), and as commander of a punitive raid against Pancho Villa (1916). During World War I he was appointed commander in chief of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). He maintained the AEF as an independent army of two million men and resisted Allied efforts to use U.S. forces as replacement units for French and British troops. He led the successful assault of the St. Mihiel salient in September 1918 and helped defeat German forces in the Meuse-Argonne offensive. He was promoted to general of the armies in 1919 and was army chief of staff from 1921 to 1924. His nickname, “Black Jack,” derived from his service with an African American regiment early in his career (see buffalo soldier). His memoirs, My Experiences in the World War (1931), won a Pulitzer Prize.

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(born April 7, 1873, Truxton, N.Y., U.S.—died Feb. 25, 1934, New Rochelle, N.Y.) U.S. baseball player and manager. McGraw was a star infielder for the Baltimore National League team in the 1890s. His batting average of .391 in 1899 remains the highest ever for a third baseman. As manager of the New York Giants (1902–32), he led the team to 10 National League championships and 3 World Series h1s (1905, 1921, 1922). For his shrewdness and veneer of harshness, he acquired the nickname “Little Napoleon.”

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(born June 28, 1831, Kittsee, near Pressburg, Austria-Hungary—died Aug. 15, 1907, Berlin, German Empire) Austro-Hungarian violinist. A prodigy, he began study as a child in Pest, continuing later in Vienna and Leipzig, where he was associated with Felix Mendelssohn. He was concertmaster at Weimar under Franz Liszt (1850–52), but their tastes in music diverged radically. He became close to Johannes Brahms, who sought Joachim's advice about his violin concerto. Joachim wrote cadenzas that are still used for a number of concertos. As the longtime head of Berlin's Hochschule (1868–1905), he developed it into a first-rank conservatory.

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(born June 29, 1886, Lenox, Mass., U.S.—died May 15, 1983, Washington, D.C.) U.S. photographer. By 1906 he had moved with his family to Harlem in New York City. After a brief stint at a portrait studio in Newark, N.J., he returned to Harlem to set up his own studio. The portraits he took from 1918 to 1945 chronicled the Harlem Renaissance; among his many renowned subjects were Countee Cullen, Bill Robinson, and Marcus Garvey. After World War II his fortunes declined until the Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibited his photographs in 1969.

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(born Aug. 29, 1958, Gary, Ind., U.S.) U.S. singer and songwriter. The nine-year-old Jackson became the lead singer of the Jackson 5, a family group formed by his father. Their hits on the Motown label included “I Want You Back” and “ABC.” Though Michael remained a member of the group until 1984, he began recording under his own name in 1971. His album Off the Wall (1979) sold millions; his next solo album, Thriller (1982), sold more than 40 million copies, becoming the best-selling album in history. The emerging format of the music video was an important aspect of Jackson's work; his videos for “Beat It” and “Billie Jean” (both 1983) featured his highly influential dancing style (notably his trademark “moonwalk”). He later released the albums Bad (1987), Dangerous (1991), and HIStory (1995). Despite his many efforts to speak out on social issues, Jackson's eccentric, secluded lifestyle stirred controversy in the early 1990s. His reputation was seriously damaged in 1993 when he was accused of child molestation by a 13-year-old boy; a civil suit was settled out of court. In 2003 Jackson was arrested on charges of child molestation; he was acquitted in 2005. His numerous honours include induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Jackson 5 (1997) and as a solo performer (2001). Several of his siblings, notably his sister Janet (b. 1966), have also enjoyed solo success.

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(born Nov. 13, 1814, Hadley, Mass., U.S.—died Oct. 31, 1879, Garden City, N.Y.) U.S. Army officer. He attended West Point and served in the Mexican War. Appointed brigadier general of volunteers at the outbreak of the American Civil War, he participated in major campaigns and became known as “Fighting Joe.” He succeeded Ambrose E. Burnside as commander of the Army of the Potomac after the disastrous Battle of Fredericksburg. He reorganized the army but failed to defeat Robert E. Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville, incurring heavy Union casualties. He resigned just before the Battle of Gettysburg but later helped secure the Union victory at the Battle of Chattanooga.

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(born Dec. 21, 1890, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died April 5, 1967, Indianapolis, Ind.) U.S. geneticist. He attended Columbia University. The possibility of consciously guiding human evolution provided the initial motivation for his research, leading him to work in the Soviet Union's Institute of Genetics. He later assisted the Republican forces in the Spanish Civil War before returning to the U.S. in 1940; he thereafter taught principally at Indiana University (1945–67). In 1926 he first induced genetic mutations through the use of X rays, and he demonstrated that mutations are the result of breakages in chromosomes and of changes in individual genes. His receipt of the Nobel Prize in 1946 increased his opportunities to publicize the dangers posed by accumulating spontaneous mutations in the human gene pool as a result of industrial processes and radiation, and he devoted much energy to increasing public awareness of the genetic dangers of radiation.

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(born Dec. 17, 1797, Albany, N.Y., U.S.—died May 13, 1878, Washington, D.C.) U.S. physicist. He aided Samuel F.B. Morse in developing the telegraph. He discovered several important principles of electricity, including self-induction. He observed electromagnetic induction a year before Michael Faraday announced its discovery. He made improvements to electromagnets, discovered the laws on which the transformer is based, investigated electric discharge, and demonstrated that sunspots radiate less heat than the general solar surface. In 1846 he became the first secretary and director of the Smithsonian Institution, where he organized a corps of volunteer weather observers that led to creation of the U.S. Weather Bureau. He was a chief technical adviser to Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War and a primary organizer of the National Academy of Science. In 1893 the standard unit of electrical inductance, the henry, was named in his honour.

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(born May 1, 1923, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—died Dec. 12, 1999, East Hampton, N.Y.) U.S. writer. Heller flew 60 combat missions as a bombardier in World War II before finishing his studies at Columbia and Oxford and working as an advertising copywriter. His satirical novel Catch-22 (1961), based on his wartime experiences, was one of the most significant works of postwar protest literature and a huge critical and popular success. His later novels include Something Happened (1974), Good as Gold (1979), God Knows (1984), and Closing Time (1994).

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(born March 31, 1732, Rohrau, Austria—died May 31, 1809, Vienna) Austrian composer. Intended for the priesthood, he was recruited at age eight to the choir at St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna, where he learned violin and keyboard. On leaving the choir, he began supporting himself by teaching and playing violin, while undertaking a rigorous study of counterpoint and harmony. He came to the attention of Pietro Metastasio and through him became factotum to the composer Nicola Porpora in exchange for lessons. Gaining entrée to high society, in 1761 he became head of the musical establishment at the great palace of the Esterházy family, which would support him for most of his career. In this position of artistic isolation but with excellent resources, Haydn felt free to experiment and was forced to become original. By his late years he was recognized internationally as the greatest living composer. He composed important works in almost every genre, and his elegant and ingratiating works balance wit and seriousness, custom and innovation. The first great symphonist, he composed 106 symphonies, including the popular last 12 “London symphonies” (1791–95). He virtually invented the string quartet, and his 68 quartets remain the foundation of the quartet literature. His choral works include 14 masses and the oratorios The Creation (1798) and The Seasons (1801). He also wrote 47 piano sonatas and more than 125 beautiful works for the cello-like baryton. The principal shaper of the Classical style, he exerted major influence on his friend Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and on his student Ludwig van Beethoven.

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(born June 30, 1893, Manchester, Eng.—died March 24, 1950, London) British political scientist, educator, and political leader. Educated at the University of Oxford, he taught at McGill University and Harvard University before returning to Britain to work for the Labour Party. He later taught at the London School of Economics (1926–50). He argued in works such as The State in Theory and Practice (1935) that the economic difficulties of capitalism might lead to the destruction of political democracy, and he came to view socialism as the only alternative to fascism. He was an assistant to Clement R. Attlee during World War II.

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(born Oct. 12, 1815, near Savannah, Ga., U.S.—died Nov. 6, 1873, Whytheville, Va.) U.S. military leader. A graduate of West Point (1838), he wrote Rifle and Light Infantry Tactics (1855), a popular manual that was later used by both sides in the American Civil War. When Georgia seceded in 1861, Hardee resigned his commission and assumed command of Confederate forces in northeastern Arkansas, later demonstrating his military skills at the Battles of Shiloh and Chattanooga. As commander of the military department of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, he attempted to halt the march of William T. Sherman across Georgia. After the war he retired to his plantation.

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(born May 28, 1915, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died May 7, 2001, Stanford, Calif.) U.S. anthropologist and linguist. He received his Ph.D. from Northwestern University. He eschewed more orthodox methods of historical linguistics for the approach he termed “mass” or “multilateral” comparison, which involved looking for phonetic resemblances among words in many languages simultaneously. His 1963 classification of African languages into four families (Afroasiatic, Niger-Congo, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan) was widely accepted. However, his 1987 classification of all American Indian languages into just two families, Amerind and Na-Dene (see Athabaskan languages) provoked a rancorous denunciation by specialists, who faulted both his data and his method.

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(born Feb. 13, 1903, Liège, Belg.—died Sept. 4, 1989, Lausanne, Switz.) Belgian-born French novelist. During 1923–33 he wrote more than 200 pseudonymous books of pulp fiction. His first novel under his own name was The Case of Peter the Lett (1931), in which he introduced one of the best-known characters in detective fiction, the Parisian police official Inspector Maigret. He wrote some 80 more Maigret novels, as well as about 130 psychological novels, numerous short stories, and autobiographical works, and was one of the most prolific and widely published authors of the 20th century. Simenon's central theme is the essential humanity of even the isolated, abnormal individual and the sorrow at the root of the human condition. Employing a style of rigorous simplicity, he evokes a prevailing atmosphere of neurotic tensions with sharp economy.

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(born Jan. 17, 1911, Renton, Wash., U.S.—died Dec. 1, 1991, Chicago, Ill.) U.S. economist. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago. He taught at various institutions and in 1977 founded the Center for the Study of the Economy and the State at the University of Chicago. Stigler studied the economics of information, elaborating on the traditional understanding of how efficient markets operate. He also studied public regulation, concluding that it is usually detrimental to consumer interests. He won the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences in 1982.

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(born circa 1731, West River, Md.—died Aug. 29, 1803, Watford, Hertfordshire, Eng.) American colonial lawyer and legislator. Entering law practice in Philadelphia in 1747, Galloway won a reputation by pleading cases before the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania before he was 20. He was elected to the colonial legislature in 1756 and served as speaker from 1766 to 1775. A loyalist, he opposed the independence of the colonies; his plan for a peaceful resolution of the conflict with Britain was narrowly rejected by the Continental Congress. During the American Revolution Galloway joined the British army under William Howe, becoming a civil administrator of Philadelphia during the British occupation of the city. When the Continental Army reentered Philadelphia in 1778, he fled to England.

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(born Jan. 27, 1775, Leonberg, Württemberg—died Aug. 20, 1854, Bad Ragaz, Switz.) German philosopher and educator. Inspired by Immanuel Kant, in his System of Transcendental Idealism (1800) he attempted to unite his concept of nature with the philosophy of Johann Gottlieb Fichte. He held that art mediates between the natural and physical spheres when the natural (or unconscious) and spiritual (or conscious) productions are united in artistic creation. His view that the Absolute expresses itself in all beings as the unity of the subjective and the objective was criticized by G.W.F. Hegel. In Of Human Freedom (1809), he declared that mankind's freedom is real only if it is freedom for both good and evil, a position that forms the basis of his later philosophy. A major figure of post-Kantian idealism, Schelling had an important influence on Romanticism. Seealso Immanuel Kant; Kantianism.

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German Franz Josef

(born Aug. 18, 1830, Schloss Schönbrunn, near Vienna—died Nov. 21, 1916, Schloss Schönbrunn) Emperor of Austria (1848–1916) and king of Hungary (1867–1916). He became emperor during the Revolutions of 1848 after the abdication of his uncle, Ferdinand I. With his prime minister, Felix, prince zu Schwarzenberg, he achieved a powerful position for Austria, in particular with the Punctation of Olmütz convention in 1850. His harsh, absolutist rule within Austria produced a strong central government but also led to rioting and an assassination attempt. Following Austria's defeat by Prussia in the Seven Weeks' War (1866), he responded to Hungarian national unrest by accepting the Compromise of 1867. He adhered to the Three Emperors' League and formed an alliance with Prussian-led Germany that led to the Triple Alliance (1882). In 1898 his wife was assassinated, and in 1889 his son Rudolf, his heir apparent, died in a suicide love pact. In 1914 his ultimatum to Serbia following the murder of the next heir presumptive, Francis Ferdinand, led Austria and Germany into World War I.

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(born Feb. 16, 1884, Iron Mountain, Mich., U.S.—died July 23, 1951, Dummerston, Vt.) U.S. filmmaker, considered the father of the documentary. He grew up in remote northern Canada and later led explorations of the area (1910–16). He lived with the Eskimos for 16 months and filmed their way of life. His resulting film, Nanook of the North (1922), was an international success and established the model for the documentary film. His later documentaries include Moana (1926), Tabu (1931), Man of Aran (1934), The Land (1942), and Louisiana Story (1948).

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orig. François-Joseph le Clerc du Tremblay

(born Nov. 4, 1577, Paris, France—died Dec. 18, 1638, Rueil) French mystic and religious reformer. He joined the Capuchins in 1599. His fervent ambition to convert European Protestants to Roman Catholicism coincided with cardinal de Richelieu's plans for French domination of Europe, and he became Richelieu's secretary in 1611. He became known as the “Gray Eminence” (for his gray Capuchin cloak), and his close collaboration with Richelieu (the “Red Eminence”) gave him powers akin to those of a foreign minister, especially during Richelieu's campaign to finance France's participation in the Thirty Years' War, which Joseph's policies did much to bring about.

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(born March 29, 1916, Watkins, Minn., U.S.—died Dec. 10, 2005, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician. He taught at the College of St. Thomas in St. Paul, Minn., before being elected to the U.S. House of Representatives (1949–59) and later the Senate (1959–71). A liberal Democrat, he became an outspoken critic of the Vietnam War. In 1968 he ran for the Democratic Party presidential nomination. His initial successes convinced Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson not to seek reelection. After losing the nomination to Hubert H. Humphrey, McCarthy decided not to run for reelection to the Senate. He made another unsuccessful attempt at the Democratic nomination in 1972 and ran unsuccessfully for president as an independent in 1976. His presidential bids in 1988 and 1992 also failed.

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(born , March 10, 1788, near Ratibor, Prussia—died Nov. 26, 1857, Neisse) German poet and novelist. Born to the nobility, he and his family lost their castle in the Napoleonic Wars, and he later worked in the Prussian civil service. He became associated with the national leaders of the Romantic movement while studying in Berlin. His most important prose work, Memoirs of a Good-for-Nothing (1826), is considered a high point of Romantic fiction. In the 1830s he wrote poetry that achieved the popularity of folk songs and inspired such composers as Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn, Johannes Brahms, Hugo Wolf, and Richard Strauss.

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(born Sept. 13, 1826, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—died June 30, 1893, Carlsbad, Bohemia) U.S. banker and philanthropist. He and his brothers inherited his father's Philadelphia banking house and built it into a successful investment-banking concern, specializing in flotation of government bonds, railroad organization, mining development, and urban real estate. In 1891 he founded the Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Industry, now Drexel University. He was the uncle of St. Katherine Drexel.

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(born May 15, 1902, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—died Dec. 20, 1976, Chicago) U.S. politician, mayor of Chicago (1955–76). A lawyer in his native Chicago, Daley served as state director of revenue (1948–50) and clerk of Cook county (1950–55) before being elected mayor. He pushed urban renewal and highway construction and a sweeping reform of the police department, but he was criticized for failing to eliminate racial segregation in housing and public schools, for promoting downtown skyscraper construction, and for police brutality committed against demonstrators at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. His tight control of city politics through job patronage won him a reputation as “the last of the big-city bosses.” His last years were marred by scandals surrounding members of his administration. His son Richard M. Daley (b. 1942) was first elected mayor of Chicago in 1989.

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(born Dec. 24, 1903, Nyack, N.Y., U.S.—died Dec. 29, 1972, New York, N.Y.) U.S. assemblage artist. He had no formal artistic training. In the 1930s and '40s he was associated with the Surrealists in New York City (see Surrealism). He was an originator of the assemblage; his most distinctive works were “boxes,” usually with glass fronts, containing objects and pieces of collage arranged in elegant but enigmatic compositions. Recurrent motifs include astronomy, music, birds, seashells, glamour photographs, and souvenirs of travel. His appeal rested on the Surrealist technique of irrational juxtaposition and on nostalgia.

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orig. Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski

(born Dec. 3, 1857, Berdichev, Ukraine, Russian Empire—died Aug. 3, 1924, Canterbury, Kent, Eng.) Polish-British novelist and short-story writer. His father was a Polish patriot who was exiled to northern Russia, and Conrad was an orphan by age 12. He managed to join the French merchant marine and in 1878 the British merchant navy, where he pursued a career for most of the next 15 years; his naval experiences would provide the material for most of his novels. Though he knew little English before he was 20, he became one of the master English stylists. He is noted for tales in rich prose of dangerous life at sea and in exotic places, settings he used to reveal his real concern, his deeply pessimistic vision of the human struggle. Of his many novels, which include Almayer's Folly (1895), The Nigger of the “Narcissus” (1897), Lord Jim (1900), Nostromo (1904), The Secret Agent (1907), and Under Western Eyes (1911), several are regarded as masterpieces. He also published seven story collections; the novella “Heart of Darkness” (1902) is his most famous shorter work and the basis for Francis Ford Coppola's film Apocalypse Now (1979). Conrad's influence on later novelists has been profound.

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(born Nov. 22, 1890, Lille, France—died Nov. 9, 1970, Colombey-les-Deux-Églises) French soldier, statesman, and architect of France's Fifth Republic. He joined the army in 1913 and fought with distinction in World War I. He was promoted to the staff of the supreme war council in 1925. In 1940 he was promoted to brigadier general and served briefly as undersecretary of state for defense under Paul Reynaud. After the fall of France to the Germans, he left for England and started the Free French movement. Devoted to France and dedicated to its liberation, he moved to Algiers in 1943 and became president of the French Committee of National Liberation, at first jointly with Henri-Honoré Giraud. After the liberation of Paris, he returned and headed two provisional governments, then resigned in 1946. He opposed the Fourth Republic, and in 1947 he formed the Rally of the French People (RPF), but severed his connections with it in 1953. He retired from public life and wrote his memoirs. When an insurrection in Algeria threatened to bring civil war to France, he returned to power in 1958, as prime minister with powers to reform the constitution. That same year he was elected president of the new Fifth Republic, which ensured a strong presidency. He ended the Algerian War and transformed France's African territories into 12 independent states. He withdrew France from NATO, and his policy of neutrality during the Vietnam War was seen by many as anti-Americanism. He began a policy of détente with Iron Curtain countries and traveled widely to form a bond with French-speaking countries. After the civil unrest of May 1968 by students and workers, he was defeated in a referendum on constitutional amendments and resigned in 1969.

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(born Oct. 16, 1863, Birmingham, Warwickshire, Eng.—died March 16, 1937, London) British statesman. Son of Joseph Chamberlain and half brother of Neville Chamberlain, he entered the House of Commons in 1892. He held a variety of posts, including chancellor of the Exchequer (1903–05, 1919–21) and secretary of state for India (1915–17). As foreign secretary (1924–29), he helped bring about the Locarno Pact, intended to secure peace in western Europe. For that accomplishment, he shared the 1925 Nobel Prize for Peace with Charles Dawes.

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(born July 8, 1836, London, Eng.—died July 2, 1914, London) British politician and reformer. Early success in business enabled him to retire at age 38 with a substantial fortune. He was elected to Parliament (1876–1906), where he became a leader of the left wing of the Liberal Party. In 1886, in opposition to Irish Home Rule, he joined other dissident Liberals (Liberal Unionists) to defeat the Liberal government. He used his control of the Liberal Unionists to pressure the subsequent Conservative government to adopt a more progressive social policy. As colonial secretary (1895–1903), he advocated tax reform and a federated empire of self-governing colonies, helping pass the Commonwealth of Australia bill (1900). He resigned when his proposals for a tariff giving preference to imperial products were rebuffed by the government.

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(born May 7, 1836, Guilford county, N.C., U.S.—died Nov. 12, 1926, Danville, Ill.) U.S. politician. He began practicing law in Illinois in 1859. Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1872, he served 46 years (1873–91, 1893–1913, 1915–23). A staunchly conservative Republican, he used his power as speaker (1903–11) in a partisan manner. In 1910 a coalition of Democrats and insurgent Republicans passed a resolution that made the speaker ineligible for membership on the rules committee, the main source of his power. Personally well liked, he was popularly known as “Uncle Joe.”

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(born May 18, 1692, Wantage, Berkshire, Eng.—died June 16, 1752, Bath, Somerset) British bishop and moral philosopher. He became dean of St. Paul's Cathedral in 1740 and bishop of Durham in 1750. His works defended revealed religion against the rationalist thinkers of his time. His The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature (1736) attacked the doctrine of Deism, according to which knowledge of God is acquired through reason rather than revelation. His Of the Nature of Virtue, appended to the Analogy, presented a refutation of hedonism and of the notion that self-interest is the ultimate principle of good conduct.

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orig. Iosip Aleksandrovich Brodsky

(born May 24, 1940, Leningrad, Russia, U.S.S.R.—died Jan. 28, 1996, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Russian-born U.S. poet. In the Soviet Union his independent spirit and irregular work record led to a five-year sentence to hard labour. Exiled in 1972, he settled in New York. He was poet laureate of the U.S. from 1991 to 1992. His lyric and elegiac poems ponder the universal concerns of life, death, and the meaning of existence. Brodsky's poetry collections include A Part of Speech (1980), History of the Twentieth Century (1986), and To Urania (1988). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1987.

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(born 1742, banks of the Ohio River—died Nov. 24, 1807, near Brantford, Ont., Can.) Mohawk Indian chief and Christian missionary. Brant was converted to the Anglican church while attending a school for Indians in Connecticut. He fought for the British in the last French and Indian War (1754–63). He led four of the six Iroquois nations on the British side in the American Revolution, winning several notable battles. After the war Brant was granted land along the Grand River in Ontario, Can., where he ruled peacefully and continued his missionary work.

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(born April 13, 1748, Stainborough, Yorkshire, Eng.—died Dec. 9, 1814, London) British engineer and inventor. Originally a cabinetmaker, Bramah in 1784 devised a pick-proof lock, which defied all efforts for 67 years. Since the success of his locks depended on their complexity, they could be produced in quantity only after the creation of a set of well-designed and precisely engineered machine tools, for which he hired a brilliant young blacksmith, Henry Maudslay. Their prototype machines were essential to the founding of the machine-tool industry. Bramah's hydraulic press found many industrial uses and led to the development of hydraulic machinery.

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(born Oct. 29, 1811, Madrid, Spain—died Dec. 6, 1882, Cannes, France) French utopian socialist and journalist. In 1839 he founded the socialist newspaper Revue du Progrès and serially published his The Organization of Labour, which described his theory of worker-controlled “social workshops” that would gradually take over production until a socialist society came into being. He was a member of the provisional government of the Second Republic (1848) but was forced to flee to England after workers unsuccessfully revolted. In exile (1848–70), he wrote a history of the French Revolution and other political works.

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(born May 12, 1921, Krefeld, Ger.—died Jan. 23, 1986, Düsseldorf, W.Ger.) German avant-garde sculptor and performance artist. He served in the German air force in World War II and later studied art in Düsseldorf (1947–51); in 1961 he was appointed professor of sculpture at its art academy. In the 1960s he worked with the international group Fluxus, whose emphasis was not on what an artist makes but on his or her personality, actions, and opinions. Beuys's most famous and controversial performance was How to Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare (1965), in which he walked around an art gallery with his face covered in honey and gold leaf, talking to a dead hare about human and animal consciousness. He also became known for sculptural works that utilized fat and layers of felt. He succeeded in creating a popular personal mythology and was one of the most influential artists and teachers of the later 20th century.

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(born July 27, 1870, La Celle-Saint-Cloud, France—died July 16, 1953, Guildford, Surrey, Eng.) French-born British poet, historian, Catholic apologist, and essayist. A highly versatile writer, he is best remembered for his light verse, particularly for children, and for his lucid and graceful essays. His works include Verses and Sonnets (1895), The Bad Child's Book of Beasts (1896), The Modern Traveller (1898), Mr. Burden (1904), and Cautionary Tales (1907). He also wrote several historical works, including a four-volume History of England (1925–31).

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(born Aug. 23, 1921, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. economist. He received his Ph.D. from Columbia University and taught principally at Stanford and Harvard. Arrow's books include Social Choices and Individual Values (1951). His most striking claim was that, under certain conditions of rationality and equality, a ranking of societal preferences will not necessarily correspond to the rankings of individual preferences, given more than two individuals and alternative choices. In 1972 he shared the Nobel Prize with John R. Hicks.

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(born April 14, 1889, London, Eng.—died Oct. 22, 1975, York, North Yorkshire) English historian. Long a professor at the University of London and the Royal Institute of International Affairs, Toynbee also held positions with the British Foreign Office. He is best known for his 12-volume A Study of History (1934–61), which put forward a philosophy of history, based on an analysis of the development and decline of 26 civilizations. Criticisms of his Study include his use of myths and metaphors as being of comparable value to factual data and his reliance on a view of religion as a regenerative force. His other works include Civilization on Trial (1948), East to West (1958), and Hellenism (1959).

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(born July 19, 1896, Cardross, Dumbartonshire, Scot.—died Jan. 6, 1981, Montreux, Switz.) Scottish novelist. Trained as a surgeon, he practiced medicine mostly in mining communities, but he ceased because of ill health and used his leisure to write. His books combine sentimentality with social criticism. His first novel, Hatter's Castle (1931; film, 1941), was an immediate success. His classic The Stars Look Down (1935; film, 1939) chronicles social injustice in a mining community. Other works include The Citadel (1937; film, 1938), The Keys of the Kingdom (1942; film, 1944), The Green Years (1944; film, 1946), The Judas Tree (1961), and A Thing of Beauty (1956).

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(born Jan. 16, 1935, Houston, Texas, U.S.) U.S. automobile racing driver. He became the first four-time winner of the Indianapolis 500 (1961, 1964, 1967, 1977) and is the only driver to have won the Indy 500, the Daytona 500, and the Le Mans Grand Prix. He was national champion stock-car driver in 1968, 1978, and 1979, and he also amassed numerous wins in sports- and midget-car racing.

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(born Sept. 13, 1826, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—died June 30, 1893, Carlsbad, Bohemia) U.S. banker and philanthropist. He and his brothers inherited his father's Philadelphia banking house and built it into a successful investment-banking concern, specializing in flotation of government bonds, railroad organization, mining development, and urban real estate. In 1891 he founded the Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Industry, now Drexel University. He was the uncle of St. Katherine Drexel.

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(born AD 40—died circa 135, Caesarea, Palestine) Jewish sage, one of the founders of rabbinic Judaism. He is said to have been an illiterate shepherd who began to study after age 40. He believed that Scripture contained many implied meanings in addition to its overt meaning, and he regarded written law (Torah) and oral law (Halakhah) as ultimately one. He collected and systematized the oral traditions concerning the conduct of Jewish social and religious life, thus laying the foundation of the Mishna. He may have been involved in Bar Kokhba's unsuccessful rebellion against Rome; he gave the rebel leader his h1 and recognized him as the messiah. He was imprisoned by the Romans and martyred for his public teaching. Seealso Ishmael ben Elisha.

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(born May 1, 1672, Milston, Wiltshire, Eng.—died June 17, 1719, London) English essayist, poet, and dramatist. His poem on the Battle of Blenheim, The Campaign (1705), brought him to the attention of leading Whigs and paved the way to important government posts (including secretary of state) and literary fame. With Richard Steele, he was a leading contributor to and guiding spirit of the periodicals The Tatler (1709–11) and The Spectator (1711–12, 1714). One of the most admired masters of English prose, he brought to perfection the periodical essay. His Cato (1713), a highly successful play with political overtones, is one of the important tragedies of the 18th century.

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(born March 12, 1821, St. Andrews, Lower Canada—died Oct. 30, 1893, Montreal, Que., Can.) Canadian prime minister (1891–92). Educated at McGill University in Montreal, he became a lawyer in 1847 and was made queen's counsel in 1862. He was dean of McGill University law school from 1855 to 1880. After serving in the legislative assembly (1857–74, 1880–87), he was appointed to the Senate and became government leader. Upon the death of John Macdonald, he became the compromise choice for prime minister. Ill health forced his resignation in 1892.

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Joseph may refer to:

People with the name Joseph:

• Joseph (name), about the given name
• Joseph (surname), for people with the last name Joseph
• Jose, shortened name
• Saint Joseph (disambiguation), for saints named Joseph
• Joseph (Hebrew Bible)
• Joseph of Arimathea
• Joseph (Book of Mormon), figure in the Book of Mormon, brother to Nephi

In places:

• Joseph, Utah
• Joseph, Oregon
• St. Joseph, Missouri

In music:

• Joseph and his Brethren, oratorio by George Frideric Handel
• Joseph (opera), by the French composer Étienne Méhul
• Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat, musical by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice based on the life of the Old Testament Biblical figure Joseph, from the book of Genesis
• YosepH, album by Luke Vibert

Other:

• Yusuf (disambiguation), as rendered in Islam/Arabic