Wallon, Henri Alexandre, 1812-1904, French historian and politician. He was elected (1871) to the national assembly, and it was his proposal (1875) that led to the adoption of the organic laws that formed the constitution of the Third Republic. As minister of public instruction (1875-76), he was accused of supporting Roman Catholic interests and was forced to resign. Wallon's major field of historical scholarship was the French Revolution. His Histoire du tribunal révolutionnaire (6 vol., 1880-82) contained much new material and connected the work of the tribunal with the general revolutionary movement.

Vieuxtemps, Henri, 1820-81, Belgian violinist and composer. He toured Europe and the United States and taught in St. Petersburg (1846-51), where he was also court violinist, and at the Brussels Conservatory (1871-73). His six violin concertos are still in the standard repertory.

Velde, Henri van de, 1863-1957, Belgian designer and architect. Beginning as a painter, critic, and crafts designer in Belgium and in France, he received his first great acclaim for the interiors that he exhibited at Dresden in 1897. Van de Velde played a leading role in the development of Jugendstil, the German equivalent of art nouveau. His designs for furniture and tableware are of especially high quality. With ideas deriving in part from Ruskin and William Morris, he taught at his own school, the Weimar School of Arts and Crafts. Van de Velde's architectural activity was considerable. His best work is found in his own house near Brussels (1895) and in the studio building for his school at Weimar (1906), but his architecture never had the quality, importance, or influence of his crafts and his numerous writings. His first book was Die Renaissance im modernen Kunstgewerbe (1901).

Turenne, Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, vicomte de, 1611-75, marshal of France, one of the greatest of French commanders. The son of the duc de Bouillon, he was brought up as a Protestant. He began his military career in the Dutch army but soon entered French service. Turenne showed his great capabilities in the Thirty Years War, distinguishing himself under Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar in the victory (1638) over the imperial forces at Breisach. In the successful battles of Freiburg im Breisgau (1644) and Nördlingen (1645) he served with the brilliant commander Louis II de Bourbon, prince de Condé; the lives of the two were thereafter intertwined. Turenne, who had been made a marshal in 1643, was—with the Swede Lennart Torstensson—the dominant figure in the last years of the war. His series of victories expedited the long negotiations leading to the Peace of Westphalia (1648). In the war of the Fronde of the Princes (see under Fronde) he was persuaded by Mme de Longueville, Condé's sister, to take the part of the rebels led by Condé and was defeated (1650) by government forces at Rethel. When the princes of the Fronde had been reconciled with Mazarin, Turenne again became a government commander. He defeated (1652) Condé roundly at the battle of the Faubourg Saint-Antoine near Paris and was again (1658) victorious over Condé in the Battle of the Dunes, when the latter was serving with Spain. In the War of Devolution (see Devolution, War of) he commanded (1667) in Flanders but had no part in the campaign (1669) of Condé (now reconciled to the government) in Franche-Comté. In the third of the Dutch Wars he marched with King Louis XIV and Condé into Holland, but the French were checked before Amsterdam by the opening (1672) of the dikes. On the Rhine, Turenne defeated (1674) enemy troops at Sinzheim and ravaged the Palatinate. He was killed in battle against the troops of Raimondo Montecucculi. His emphasis on mobility and surprise and his patient calculation, matched by his personal courage and his popularity with his men, won him much admiration. Late in his life he was converted (1668) to Roman Catholicism.

Troyat, Henri, 1911-2007, French novelist and biographer, b. Moscow as Lev Aslanovich Tarassov. He and his family fled the Russian Revolution and settled (1911) in Paris. He was the author of numerous historical novels (including the cycle Tant que la terre durera [while the earth endures], 1946-48) and biographies of famous Russians, including Tolstoy (1965, tr. 1967), and Ivan the Terrible (1982, tr. 1986). One of France's most popular and prolific authors, Troyat, who wrote a total of 105 books, is especially noted for the lucidity of his prose. He was elected to the Académie Française in 1959.

Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de, 1864-1901, French painter and lithographer, b. Albi. Son of a wealthy nobleman, Lautrec fell and broke both legs when he was a child. His permanently stunted growth has traditionally been seen as the result of this accident, but more recently doctors have theorized that it may have been the result of a rare genetic abnormality. Showing an early gift for drawing, he studied with Bonnat and Cormon and set up a studio of his own when he was 21. As a youth he was attracted by sporting subjects and admired and was influenced by the work of Degas.

His own work is, above all, graphic in nature, the paint never obscuring the strong, original draftsmanship. He detailed the music halls, circuses, brothels, and cabaret life of Paris with a remarkable objectivity born, perhaps, of his own isolation. His garish and artificial colors, the orange hair and electric green light of his striking posters, caught the atmosphere of the life they advertised. Lautrec's technical innovations in color lithography created a greater freedom and a new immediacy in poster design. His posters of the dancers and personalities at the Moulin Rouge cabaret are world renowned and have inspired countless imitations.

After a life of enormous productivity (more than 1,000 paintings, 5,000 drawings, and 350 prints and posters), debauchery, and alcoholism, Lautrec suffered a mental and physical collapse and died at the age of 37. His life has inspired numerous biographies, of varying accuracy. Although exhibitions of his work were not well received in his lifetime, he is now one of the world's most popular artists and is represented in most of the major museums of France and the United States. Many of his sketches and some paintings are in the Musée Lautrec of his native Albi. His painting At the Moulin de la Galette (1892) is in the Art Institute, Chicago; the lithograph Seated Female Clown (1896) is at the Philadelphia Museum of Art.

Tonty, Henri de: see Tonti, Henri de.

Tonti or Tonty, Henri de, c.1650-1704, French explorer in North America, b. Italy. Serving in the French army, he lost a hand in battle; his skillful use of the appliance with which the hand was replaced was later to lead Native Americans to believe him possessed of special powers. In 1678, Tonti accompanied the explorer La Salle to Canada as his lieutenant and was dispatched to Niagara where, among hostile Native Americans, he constructed the Griffon, the first sailboat to ply the Great Lakes W of Ontario. Tonti preceded La Salle westward to Detroit and penetrated into the country of the Illinois, whom he won over to the French interest. In 1680, left by La Salle at Starved Rock to construct a fort, he was faced by desertion of his men and the hostility of the Native Americans and was forced to winter in Wisconsin. Meeting La Salle at Mackinac the following year, he traveled with him down the Mississippi to its mouth; they proclaimed the entire Mississippi watershed the domain of France. Tonti returned alone to the Illinois River, where he was rejoined by La Salle, and together they completed (1682-83) Fort St. Louis at Starved Rock. When La Salle returned to France, Tonti was left in charge of the fort. La Salle did not return, for he failed in his attempt to find the mouth of the Mississippi by sea. Having no word, Tonti in 1686 descended the river in a hopeless search for La Salle. The following year he took part with a band of Illinois in the raid by the marquis de Denonville against the Iroquois. Tonti remained at Fort St. Louis, developing the new empire, until 1700, when he joined Iberville's colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. Pierre Margry included Tonti's account in Mémoires et documents pour servir à l'histoire des origines francaises des pays d'outre-mer (6 vol., 1879-1888; tr. Relation of Henri de Tonty, 1898).

Taschereau, Sir Henri Elzéar, 1836-1911, Canadian jurist, b. Quebec prov., nephew of Elzéar Alexandre Cardinal Taschereau. He was a judge of the Supreme Court of Canada (1878) and was later chief justice (1902-6). He was knighted in 1902. His cousin, Sir Henri Thomas Taschereau, 1841-1909, was also a jurist. He was a judge of the superior court of Quebec (1878-1907) and chief justice of King's Bench in Quebec (1907-9). He was knighted in 1908. Sir Henri Thomas Taschereau's brother, Louis Alexandre Taschereau, 1867-1952, was minister of public works and labor in Quebec prov., attorney general, and prime minister of the province (1920-36). Louis's son, Robert, a jurist, served as chief justice of Canada in 1963-67.

Spaak, Paul Henri, 1899-1972, Belgian statesman and Socialist leader. He held various cabinet posts after 1935 and served almost continually as foreign minister from 1938 to 1949. A moderate Socialist, Spaak was three times premier (1938-39, 1946, 1947-49) in coalition governments. He was an opponent of the return of King Leopold III to Belgium. He was again foreign minister from 1954 to 1957, and he resumed that post from 1961 to 1966, serving also as vice premier (1961-65). Spaak acquired international stature as first president of the General Assembly of the United Nations (1946), chairman of the Council for European Recovery (1948-49), and secretary-general of NATO (1957-61). In both national and international posts Spaak strove for the political and economic unification of Western Europe, and he was active in the creation of the organizations that have since become the European Union.

Simon, Claude Eugène Henri, 1913-2005, French novelist. He was born in Antananarivo, Madagascar, and studied at Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge. He fought in World War II both as a soldier and later in the resistance. During the 1950s he became known as one of the major writers of the French nouveau roman [new novel] (see French literature); his style is characterized by the use of interior monologue and an absence of punctuation, showing the influence of William Faulkner and James Joyce. Some of his later works are nearly without narrative structure and plot. His 15 novels include Le Tricheur [the trickster] (1945), Le Vent (1957; tr. The Wind, 1959), La Route de Flandres (1960; tr. The Flanders Road, 1962), Histoire (1967, tr. 1968), Leçon de Choses (1975, tr. The World about Us, 1983), L'Acacia (1990, tr. The Acacia, 1991), and the autobiographical Le Jardin des Plantes (1997, tr. 2001). Simon was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1985.

Saint-Simon, Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de, 1760-1825, French social philosopher; grand nephew of Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon. While still a young man, he served in the American Revolution as a volunteer on the side of the colonists. He took no part in the French Revolution, but used the opportunity to make a fortune through land speculation. He lavished his wealth on a salon for scientists and spent his later years in poverty, sustained by the faith that he had a message for humanity. Foreseeing the triumph of the industrial order, Saint-Simon called for the reorganization of society by scientists and industrialists on the basis of a scientific division of labor that would result in automatic and spontaneous social harmony. In Le Nouveau Christianisme [the new Christianity] (1825), he proclaimed that the concept of brotherhood must accompany scientific organization. His writings contain ideas foreshadowing the positivism of Auguste Comte (for a time his pupil), socialism, federation of the nations of Europe, and many other modern trends. Around him gathered a small group of brilliant young men. After his death, they modified and elucidated his principles into a system of thought known as Saint-Simonianism. Partly because of their eccentricities, the Saint-Simonians achieved brief fame. Led by Barthélemy Prosper Enfantin and Saint-Amand Bazard, they organized a series of lectures (published in 1828-30 as L'Exposition de la doctrine de Saint-Simon), calling for abolition of individual inheritance rights, public control of means of production, and gradual emancipation of women. Although the movement developed into a moral-religious cult and had split and was disintegrated by 1833, it exerted much influence, especially on later socialist thought.

Saint-Pierre, Jacques Henri Bernardin de: see Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, Jacques Henri.

Régnier, Henri de, 1864-1936, French poet, one of the young symbolists of the circle of Mallarmé. His early Poèmes anciens et romanesques (1891) showed skill in free verse, but his style soon changed to follow classical models, chiefly through the influence of José Maria de Heredia, father of Régnier's wife, Marie Louise de Heredia de Régnier, herself a poet. The poetic volume La Sandale ailée (1906; tr. Poems from the Wingèd Sandal, 1933) represents Régnier's classical style. Régnier also wrote successful novels that reflected his interest in history.

Rousseau, Henri, 1844-1910, French primitive painter, b. Laval. He was entirely self-taught, and his work remained consistently naive and imaginative. Rousseau was called Le Douanier [the customs officer] because he held a minor post in the Paris customs service for more than 20 years before he retired to paint (1893). Although he claimed to have lived in Mexico in his youth, he later admitted that the claim was false. The only tropical vegetation Rousseau ever saw was in Parisian greenhouses, and his remarkable landscapes had no counterpart in nature. His painted jungles are an organized profusion of carefully defined yet fantastic plants, half-concealing various wild animals with startlingly staring eyes. These scenes are rendered in a vivid, almost hypnotic folk style. The finest ones include The Snake Charmer (1907; Louvre) and The Dream (1910; Mus. of Modern Art, New York City). With the same approach Rousseau employed in painting the familiar (e.g., Village Street Scene, 1909; Philadelphia Mus. of Art), he painted the haunting and dreamlike Sleeping Gypsy (1897; Mus. of Modern Art, New York City). His fantastic Gypsy sleeps in a nighttime desert, closely observed by a lion—the entire absurdity rendered in a compelling, straightforward manner. The painting thus combines the unique elements of Rousseau's art to their most startling effect. Rousseau exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants from 1886, but did not become well known until the early years of the 20th cent. when he was "taken up" by Picasso, Apollinaire, and other members of the Parisian avant garde.

Rohan, Henri, duc de, 1579-1638, French Protestant general; son-in-law of the duc de Sully. A leader of the Huguenots, Rohan took up arms against the French government in 1621-22 as a consequence of the reestablishment of Roman Catholicism in Béarn. With his brother, Benjamin de Soubise, Rohan led revolts in Languedoc and the Cévennes in 1625-26 and again in 1627-29 but was forced to submit to King Louis XIII's chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu, in the Peace of Alais (1629). He retired to Venice. In 1635 he was chosen by Richelieu to command the French troops in the Valtellina, which he subdued. Treachery and weak official support forced his retreat in 1637. Rohan subsequently joined the army of Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar and was killed at Rheinfelden during the Thirty Years War. He left memoirs (1644, enl. ed. 1646, tr. 1660) and other writings.

Rochefort, Victor Henri, marquis de Rochefort-Luçay, 1831-1913, French journalist and politician. The editor of Le Figaro in 1863, he also founded and edited the bitterly anti-imperial journals La Lanterne (1868) and La Marseillaise (1869). After the Franco-Prussian War he founded Le Mot d'ordre (1871), supported the Commune of Paris, and was consequently sent (1873) to the penal colony of New Caledonia. He soon escaped and revived La Lanterne in Geneva, Switzerland. After the general amnesty of 1880 he returned to Paris and started L'Intransigeant. Twice elected a deputy, Rochefort, in a political switch from the extreme left to the extreme right, became an ardent supporter of Georges Boulanger and was forced to flee France. Tried in absentia, he remained in exile from 1889 to 1895. Later, Rochefort's extreme nationalism led him to take a violent stand against Alfred Dreyfus in the Dreyfus Affair.

Riesener, Jean Henri, 1734-1806, French cabinetmaker, one of the major artists who made important contributions to the formation of the Louis XVI style in France. Born in Germany, he early moved to Paris and joined the Arsenal workshop of J. F. Oeben, with whom he collaborated in the creation of Louis XV's writing desk, finished in 1769, one of the supremely fine achievements of 18th-century cabinetmaking. After Oeben's death (c.1765), Riesener became conductor of the Arsenal workshops and continued the production of sumptuous furniture for the court and fashionable society. Riesener's furniture pieces are distinguished for their architectural lines, finely executed adornments in chiseled bronze, and exquisite marquetries. Examples may be found in the Louvre, Compiègne, Fontainebleau, Windsor, and the Wallace Collection, London.

Regnault, Henri Victor, 1810-78, French physicist and chemist. He was professor of chemistry at the École polytechnique, Paris, from 1840 and at the Collège de France from 1841; he became chief engineer of mines (1847) and director of the porcelain manufactory at Sèvres (1854). In chemistry he is known for his work on the halogen and other derivatives of the unsaturated hydrocarbons. In physics he is noted for his careful measurements of the specific heats and expansion coefficients of many gases, liquids, and solids. He showed that Boyle's law is only approximately true for real gases, and he did important research on the operation of steam engines.

Pétain, Henri Philippe, 1856-1951, French army officer, head of state of the Vichy government (see under Vichy). In World War I he halted the Germans at Verdun (1916), thus becoming the most beloved French military hero of that conflict. In 1917 he was appointed French commander in chief and in 1918 was made a marshal. He later went to Morocco, where he brought the joint French and Spanish campaign against Abd el-Krim to a successful conclusion (1926). He was briefly (1934) war minister in the cabinet of Gaston Doumergue. In 1939, Pétain was named ambassador to Spain after France had recognized the new regime under Francisco Franco, who had served under Pétain in Morocco.

In World War II, when France was on the brink of collapse, Premier Paul Reynaud recalled (May, 1940) Pétain from Spain and made him vice premier in an effort to bolster French morale with the name of the hero of Verdun. Believing that the nation's defeat was inevitable after the collapse of its military forces, Pétain urged that France sue for an armistice, and on June 16 he succeeded Reynaud as premier. The armistice went into effect on June 25, and more than half of France was occupied by the Germans. On July 10, 1940, a rump parliament suspended the constitution of the Third Republic, and Pétain took office as "chief of state" at Vichy, in unoccupied France. The Vichy government was fascistic and authoritarian. Pétain sought to improve the lot of France and of French prisoners of war by collaborating "honorably" with Germany, but his popularity decreased as he yielded to harsh German demands and obtained little in return. In Apr., 1942, Pierre Laval took power, and thereafter the marshal was chiefly a figurehead.

After the Allied invasion of France (June 6, 1944) Pétain was taken, allegedly against his will, to Germany. In 1945 he voluntarily returned to France to face treason charges. His trial (July-Aug., 1945), at which much contradictory evidence was heard, ended with conviction, a sentence of death, degradation, and loss of property. General de Gaulle, then provisional head of the French government, commuted the sentence to life imprisonment in a military fortress. Detained at first in the Pyrenees, Pétain was later transferred to the island of Yeu, where he died.

Pousseur, Henri, 1929-, Belgian composer, b. Malmédy. Pousseur is considered the leader of the Belgian avant-garde. He studied composition with André Souris and Pierre Boulez and worked with Karl Heinz Stockhausen, Luciano Berio, and Bruno Maderna in electronic music. Pousseur has composed for both traditional and electronic instruments. Among his works are Seismogrammes (1953) for magnetic tape, Mobile (1958) for two pianos, Electre (1960), an electronic ballet, and Votre Faust, an opera with variable plot, libretto by Michel Butor (1969).

Poincaré, Jules Henri, 1854-1912, French mathematician, physicist, and author. He was from 1881 connected with the faculty of sciences at the Univ. of Paris. One of the greatest mathematicians of his age, Poincaré, by research in the theory of functions, especially the automorphic, Fuchsian, and Abelian functions, enlarged the field of mathematical physics. He did notable work also in differential equations and celestial mechanics, particularly the problem of three or more bodies moving under their mutual gravitational attractions. Poincaré not only made important contributions across the full range of mathematics, both pure and applied, but also wrote extensively on the philosophy of science. He was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1887, became its president in 1906, and was elected to the Academie Française in 1909. His works include Les Méthodes nouvelles de la mécanique céleste (3 vol., 1892-99; tr., 3 vol., 1967) and three works (1902, 1904, 1908) published in English as The Foundations of Science (1913, repr. 1946).

Pirenne, Henri, 1862-1935, Belgian historian. He was for many years a professor of history at the Univ. of Ghent. A leader of Belgian passive resistance in World War I, he was held (1916-18) as a hostage by the Germans. In his History of Belgium (tr., 7 vol., 1899-1932), he showed how traditional and economic forces had drawn Flemings and Walloons together. In Mohammed and Charlemagne (tr. 1939) he attributed the collapse of late Roman-Christian civilization to the spread of Islam; this thesis raised much controversy among historians. Pirenne emphasized the historical role of the capitalist middle class, and in Medieval Cities (tr. 1925) he revolutionized accepted views by attributing the origins of medieval cities to the revival of trade. Other works include Belgian Democracy: Its Early History (tr. 1915) and Economic and Social History of Medieval Europe (tr. 1936).

Pire, Georges Henri, 1910-69, Belgian priest. He entered a Dominican monastery at the age of 18 and was ordained in 1934. He taught moral philosophy and sociology and during World War II participated in the Belgian resistance movement. After the war he became deeply concerned with the plight of Europe's refugees and in 1949 established an organization, Aid to Displaced Persons, which did much to improve the living conditions and resettlement of refugees. Father Pire was awarded the 1958 Nobel Peace Prize.

Pierné, Henri Constant Gabriel, 1863-1937, French organist, conductor, and composer; pupil of Massenet and César Franck. His cantata Edith won the Prix de Rome in 1882. He succeeded Franck as organist at Ste Clotilde, 1890-98, and was chief conductor (1910-32) of the Colonne Concerts. He was elected to the Académie des Beaux-Arts in 1924. His most popular works are the oratorio La Croisade des Enfants (1905) and the piano piece Marche des petits soldats de plomb. He also wrote eight operas, instrumental and orchestral music, and songs.

Orléans, Henri Philippe Marie, prince d', 1867-1901, French explorer and author, b. England; son of Robert, duke of Chartres. After a journey (1889) from Siberia to Siam, by way of Tibet, and a visit (1892) to SE Africa, he left (1895) Hanoi to complete the earlier work of M. J. F. Garnier on the Mekong River in Indochina. He traveled as far as the Brahmaputra, established the fact that the Thanlwin (Salween) originates in Tibet (now in China), and also discovered the source of the Ayeyarwady. His accounts of his travels include Around Tonkin and Siam (1894, tr. 1894) and From Tonkin to India (1897, tr. 1898).

Nicolle, Charles Jules Henri, 1866-1936, French physician and microbiologist. He worked with P. P. É. Roux in Paris and was director of the Pasteur Institute in Tunis from 1903 and professor at the Collège de France, Paris, from 1932. He worked on various diseases, including whooping cough, measles, trachoma, and influenza, and demonstrated (1909) the transmission of typhus by the body louse. For his work on typhus he received the 1928 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

Montmorency, Henri, duc de, the elder, 1534-1614, constable of France; younger son of Anne de Montmorency. He was known as Henri, comte de Damville, before 1579. He took Louis I de Condé prisoner at Dreux (1562). In 1563 he succeeded his father as governor of Languedoc and in 1567 was made a marshal. A zealous Roman Catholic and adherent of the Guise family until his father's death, he was led by the subsequent decline of his family's fortunes and by the murder of his relative Gaspard de Coligny to associate himself with the moderates who favored a rapprochement with the Huguenots. He resisted royal efforts to remove him from Languedoc, where he was practically an independent sovereign; he was in alliance with the Huguenots from 1575 to 1577, but thereafter remained aloof from both parties, while attempting to bring about their conciliation. He adhered to King Henry IV in 1593 and became constable. After Henry's death (1610) he retired to his province.

Montmorency, Henri, duc de, the younger, 1595-1632, admiral and marshal of France; son of the elder Henri de Montmorency. He became governor of Languedoc in 1613 and fought in the religious and foreign wars of Louis XIII's reign. In 1632 he joined in a conspiracy of Gaston d'Orléans against Cardinal Richelieu and was captured and executed.

Montherlant, Henri de, 1896-1972, French writer. His novels are decadent and egotistical and glorify force and masculinity. Montherlant fought in World War I and was later an athlete and a bullfighter. Among his novels are Les Bestiaires (1926, tr. The Bullfighters, 1927), Les Célibataires (1934, tr. The Bachelors, 1960), the series of four novels Les Jeunes Filles (1936-40; tr. Pity for Women, 1937, Costals & the Hippogriff, 1940), and Les Garçons (1969). Montherlant's plays, all very successful, include Le Maǐtre de Santiago (1947, tr. 1951), Port-Royal (1954), Don Juan (1958), Le Cardinal d'Espagne (1960), and La Guerre civile (1965, tr. 1967 in Theatre of War).

Monnier, Henri, 1799-1877, French lithographer and writer. His work became popular (c.1825) when he illustrated La Fontaine's Fables with pen drawings. He wrote and illustrated three series of Scènes populaires (1830, 1835, 1862), books of satiric sketches about the people of his day, in which he introduced the imaginary characters Mme Gibou and M. Joseph Prudhomme. Their history was continued in his best-known work, Mémoires de Monsieur Joseph Prudhomme (1857), a collection of cartoons, with some text. Some of his numerous plays also concerned themselves with these characters.

Milne-Edwards, Henri, 1800-1885, French naturalist. He became professor at the Sorbonne (1843) and served at the Museum of Natural History, Paris, as professor (from 1841) and director (from 1864). He wrote important works on the crustaceans, mollusks, and corals and a noted textbook on zoology (1834). His principal work was a series on comparative anatomy and physiology (14 vol., 1857-81).

Merle d'Aubigné, Jean Henri, 1794-1872, Swiss ecclesiastical historian and Protestant preacher. After studying theology at Geneva and in Berlin, he was pastor of the French Protestant church in Hamburg for five years, then court preacher to King William at Brussels until the Revolution of 1830 separated Holland from Belgium. Returning to Geneva, he helped establish the new Evangelical Church there and became distinguished as professor of Church history in its theological seminary. His history of the Reformation (1835-53) was translated into most of the languages of Europe and was widely read.

Matisse, Henri, 1869-1954, French painter, sculptor, and lithographer. Along with Picasso, Matisse is considered one of the two foremost artists of the modern period. His contribution to 20th-century art is inestimably great.

Matisse began to study law and, during an illness in 1890, took up painting, thereafter forsaking law entirely. He studied first with the academician Bouguereau and then with Gustave Moreau, in whose studio he met many painters who would soon attain prominence with him in the fauvist movement. Matisse's earliest work was exceptionally mature. He explored impressionism (e.g., La Desserte, 1897; Niarchos Coll., Athens) and, coming into contact with the theories of Paul Signac, drew upon neoimpressionist styles as in Luxe, calme et volupté (c.1905; private coll.). To learn aspects of composition he made variations on the works of the old masters in the Louvre, a practice he continued for many years (e.g., Variation on a Still Life by de Heem, c.1915; S. A. Marx Coll., Chicago).

Matisse began exhibiting in 1896 and at first was unsuccessful. In 1905 at Collioure, a Mediterranean village, he began using pure primary color as a significant structural element. His portrait of Mme Matisse, known as The Green Line (1905; State Mus., Copenhagen), exemplifies this abstract, intellectual use of color. In 1905 he exhibited at the Salon d'automne with the group of artists called fauves [Fr.,=wild beasts], so named for their remarkable, exuberant use of color. Matisse became a leader of fauvism, delighting in vivid color for its sensual and decorative value.

After the demise of fauvism Matisse continued to use color to communicate his joy in bold pattern and striking ornament, e.g., in The Moorish Screen (1921; Phila. Mus. of Art) and Lady in Blue (1937; private coll.). He experimented frequently with different sorts of expressive abstraction, as in The Blue Nude (1907; Baltimore Mus. of Art), Mlle Landsberg (1914; Phila. Mus. of Art), and The Piano Lesson (1916; Mus. of Modern Art, New York City), but he rejected cubism in order to develop his own ideas. In 1908 Matisse wrote out his theories for La Grande Revue; he wished, if possible, to paint a visual representation of his emotional reaction to a subject rather than its realistic appearance. By 1909 the artist's fame was worldwide.

Matisse's early sculpture reveals an interest in African art and in Rodin. Matisse designed for the ballet (1920, 1938) and illustrated works by Mallarmé (1932) and Baudelaire (1944), among many others. His superbly simple line drawings rank among the greatest works of graphic art of the 20th cent. In his last years he also made brilliant paper cutouts and stencils (e.g., Jazz, 1947; Philadelphia Mus. of Art), as gay and as strong in design as his earliest work. When he was nearly 80, Matisse volunteered to decorate the Dominican nuns' chapel at Vence, France. His fresh and joyous works for the chapel include black-and-white murals, semiabstract stained-glass windows, a stone altar, a bronze cross, carved doors, and an array of colorful vestments. His work on the chapel was completed in 1951, and Matisse declared it his masterpiece.

The largest collections of Matisse's works are in the Baltimore Museum of Art; Art Institute of Chicago; Museum of Modern Art, New York City; and the Hermitage, St. Petersburg.

Luxembourg, François Henri de Montmorency-Bouteville, duc de, 1628-95, marshal of France. Under his cousin, the Great Condé, he served in the Fronde, in the conquest of Franche-Comté (1668), and in the Dutch War. Made a marshal in 1675, he was given (1676) command on the Rhine and shared in the victory of Cassel (1677). He was implicated in the Poison Affair and was sent to the Bastille (1679-80). Although still out of favor at the beginning of the War of the Grand Alliance, he was eventually given command in Flanders and won three battles on which his reputation chiefly rests—Fleurus (1690), Steenkerke (1692), and Neerwinden (1693).

Lenormand, Henri René, 1882-1951, French dramatist. His plays, Freudian in tone and theme and often heavily symbolic, include Les Ratés (1918, tr. The Failures, 1923), Time Is a Dream (1919, tr. 1923) and Man and His Phantoms (1924, tr. 1928).

Le Châtelier, Henri Louis, 1850-1936, French industrial chemist. He made many contributions to industrial chemistry, but is best known for his work on the structure of alloys and for his enunciation of Le Châtelier's principle. This fundamental contribution to chemical thermodynamics had been anticipated in part by J. W. Gibbs, whose work Le Châtelier helped to spread in France. Toward the end of his life he wrote on topics involving industrial efficiency and labor-management relations.

Lautrec, Henri de Toulouse-: see Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de.

Lartigue, Jacques Henri, 1894-1986, French photographer. The first exhibition of Lartigue's work, at New York City's Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in 1962, revealed a remarkable personal use of the photographic medium. Trained as a painter, he considered taking pictures a hobby until the MoMA show brought him wide recognition as a photographer. Presented with his first camera at seven, he illustrated a witty, sophisticated, and detailed large-format diary of his life (in some 125 volumes) with thousands of photographs. They form a moving and exuberant composite portrait of the family, friends, and lifetime of a man of the world. Lartigue's diary and photographs have been published as Diary of a Century (ed. by R. Avedon, 1970).

Lacordaire, Jean Baptiste Henri, 1802-61, French Roman Catholic preacher and liberal. Ordained in 1827, he came under the influence of Lamennais and collaborated with him on Avenir, a journal advocating ultramontanism, complete freedom of the church from the state, and a wide program of democratic reform. After papal condemnation of the journal, Lacordaire submitted. He became known as one of the greatest Catholic preachers; his sermons at Notre-Dame in Paris were the literary and social sensation of the day. He entered the Dominican order and was responsible for the revival of that order in France. Always a liberal, Lacordaire greeted the revolution of 1848 with enthusiasm and sat for a time as a deputy on the left. The coup of Napoleon III sent him into voluntary exile after he had attacked the government unsparingly. In 1861 he was elected to the French Academy.

Labrouste, Henri, 1801-75, French architect. He was among the first to make effective architectural use of metal construction, as in his treatment of the reading room of the Bibliothèque Ste Geneviève (1843-50), Paris, in which the ceiling domes were supported upon an exposed iron framework. Labrouste also made extensive alterations on the Bibliothèque nationale.

La Rochejaquelein or La Rochejacquelin, Henri Du Vergier, comte de, 1772-94, French commander, leader of the counterrevolutionary army in the Vendée. His legendary gallantry and tactical abilities were of little avail against superior republican armies. He was killed in battle.

La Fontaine, Henri, 1854-1943, Belgian jurist and statesman. A senator from 1894 to 1936, he headed the International Peace Bureau from 1907 and was awarded the 1913 Nobel Peace Prize. His writings on international law were extensive.

Jomini, Antoine Henri, 1779-1869, Swiss general and military writer. He organized (1799) the militia of the Helvetic Republic and after 1804 served as staff officer in the French army. In Aug., 1813, after a clash with Marshal Berthier, he defected to the enemy, joining the Russian army, in which a commission had previously been arranged. He rose to high rank in Russia, becoming a celebrated authority on strategy. His works include a study of the campaigns of Frederick the Great, Traité des grandes opérations militaires (5 vol., 1804-10; tr. Treatise on Grand Military Operations); Histoire critique et militaire des guerres de la Révolution (1819-24), on the French Revolutionary Wars; and the influential Précis de l'art de la guerre (1836; tr. The Art of War, 1862), which he wrote while military tutor to the future Czar Alexander II. Jomini emphasized the capture of major points and the importance of superior numbers and lines of operation, and he advocated the employment of speed and maneuver rather than battle whenever possible.

Holbach, Paul Henri Thiry, baron d', Ger. Paul Heinrich Dietrich, Baron von Holbach, 1723-89, French philosopher, one of the Encyclopedists. Although a native of the Palatinate, he lived in Paris from childhood. He became a member of a group of notable thinkers and literary men including Diderot, Helvétius, Condorcet, and Rousseau. A supporter of naturalistic and materialistic views, he was a vigorous opponent of Christianity and all positive forms of religion. His best-known work is Système de la nature (1770), first published under the name of Mirabaud.

Henri, Robert, 1865-1929, American painter and teacher, b. Cincinnati as Robert Henry Cozad. He studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. In 1888 he went to Paris, where he worked at Julian's and the Beaux-Arts until, dissatisfied with the schools, he set up his own studio. In 1891 he returned to Philadelphia. As a member of the group of artists known as the Eight, he participated in the rebellion against academic art. Henri became one of the foremost American art teachers. First in Philadelphia, then at the Chase School in New York City, at his own school (1909-12), and at the Art Students League he inspired his students with his dynamic concept of art. Opposed to the formalization of style, he viewed art as a medium to express life and especially humanity. Among his pupils were George Bellows, Rockwell Kent, and Edward Hopper. In his own work, Henri excelled in dramatic portraits. Characteristic are his Spanish Gypsy (Metropolitan Mus.); Young Woman in Black, Himself, and Herself (Art Inst., Chicago); and Girl with a Fan (Pennsylvania Acad. of the Fine Arts).

Grégoire, Henri, 1750-1831, French priest, writer, and revolutionist. A Jansenist (see under Jansen, Cornelis), he was prominent in the States-General of 1789 and supported the union of the lower clergy with the third estate. He fought clerical and noble privilege and proposed abolition of the law of primogeniture. Grégoire took the oath of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (even though it was condemned by the pope) and became constitutional bishop of Blois in 1791. He maintained his religious beliefs throughout the Terror and fought for religious freedom under the Directory. As a senator under the Consulate, he opposed the Concordat of 1801 and, resigning his see, became a simple priest. Although he opposed the empire, Napoleon I made him a count. In 1819 he was elected to the chamber of deputies but, as a radical and a dissident priest, was refused his seat. Grégoire died in poverty; his burial was the scene of a great liberal demonstration. His writings, some of which have been translated, deal chiefly with Jansenism, racial equality, and international cooperation.

Giraud, Henri Honoré, 1879-1949, French general. He served in World War I and in the campaign in Morocco (1925-26). A commander in World War II, he was captured by the Germans in May, 1940, but made a dramatic escape (1942) to unoccupied France and from there to Gibraltar. He took part in the Allied landing in North Africa, where he was given command of all French armed forces. On the assassination (Dec., 1942) of Admiral Darlan, Giraud succeeded as high commissioner of French North and West Africa. His conservatism earned him the opposition of the Free French Committee of General de Gaulle. He and de Gaulle met fruitlessly at the Casablanca Conference, but in June, 1943, a semblance of union was effected by the formation at Algiers of the French Committee of National Liberation, with the two generals as co-presidents. Despite strong backing by the United States, Giraud was soon removed (November) from the co-presidency. In Apr., 1944, he was virtually forced by de Gaulle to retire as commander in chief.

Gaudier-Brzeska, Henri, 1891-1915, French sculptor. He was the chief exponent of vorticism in sculpture. Mainly self-taught in England and Germany, Gaudier showed exceptional precocity in his draftsmanship, animal figures, and abstract works such as The Dancer. Returning to France in 1910, he added the name of his Polish companion Sophie Brzeska to his own. Ezra Pound became his patron some time before Gaudier-Brzeska was killed in World War I at the age of 24. Several of his works are in the South Kensington Museum, London.

Frankfort, Henri, 1897-1954, American archaeologist, b. the Netherlands. He directed the excavations of the Egypt Exploration Society (1925-29) and the Iraq expeditions (1929-37) of the Oriental Institute of the Univ. of Chicago at Tell Asmar and Khorsabad. From 1932 to 1949 he taught at the Oriental Institute, and in 1949 he was appointed director of the Warburg Institute of the Univ. of London. Frankfort became an American citizen in 1944. His writings include Ancient Egyptian Religion (1948), The Birth of Civilization in the Near East (1951), and The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient (1954, rev. ed. 1958).

Focillon, Henri, 1881-1943, French art historian. Focillon, who was professor of art history at the Collège de France, was an authority on medieval art, the subject of his two-volume treatise Art of the West in the Middle Ages (2d ed. 1969). His book Life Forms in Art (1934) outlines his formal, organic conception of the art historical method, stressing analysis of style and technique over subjective interpretation.

Fantin-Latour, Ignace Henri Jean Théodore, 1836-1904, French painter and lithographer. He is best known for his portrait groups of famous contemporaries. Notable examples are The Studio at Batignolles, Hommage à Delacroix, and Around the Piano (all: Louvre). His famous portrait of Manet is in the Chicago Art Institute. Influenced by Courbet, he depicted his friends with an almost photographic technique. He is also admired for still-life paintings of flowers.

Fabre, Jean Henri, 1823-1915, French entomologist and author. He is known for his observations on insects and his study of their behavior. Fabre demonstrated the importance of instinct among insects. He taught until 1870 at Carpentras, Ajaccio, and Avignon, wrote works on popular science at Orange (1870-79), then retired to nearby Sérignan, where he devoted himself to entomological studies. Fabre worked almost exclusively from nature, and his exquisite literary style brought him as much renown as his observations. His principal work is Souvenirs entomologiques (10 vol., 1879-1907); English translations of selections from this work include The Life of the Spider (1912), The Marvels of the Insect World (1938), and The Insect World of J. Henri Fabre (ed. with commentary and biographical notes by E. W. Teale, 1949).

Estournelles de Constant, Paul Henri Benjamin, baron d', 1852-1924, French diplomat and pacifist. He wrote and spoke tirelessly in favor of disarmament and international conciliation, was a delegate to the Hague peace conferences (1899 and 1907), and was awarded the 1909 Nobel Peace Prize jointly with Auguste Beernaert.

Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon-Condé, duc d', 1772-1804, French émigré; son of Louis Henri Joseph de Condé (see under Condé, family). He was unjustly accused by Napoleon Bonaparte, then first consul of France, of participating in the conspiracy of Georges Cadoudal against Napoleon. On Napoleon's orders, the duke was kidnapped from his residence in Ettenheim, Baden, and within the space of a few hours, was court-martialed and shot at Vincennes (Mar. 21, 1804). Napoleon's brutal procedure provoked a revulsion of feeling against him throughout Europe.

Duparc, Henri, 1848-1933, French composer. Duparc studied piano with César Franck and became one of his first composition pupils. A nervous disorder caused him to cease composing in 1885. He spent the rest of his life in Switzerland. Extremely self-critical, Duparc destroyed many of his works, so that only a handful remain. His fame rests entirely on the 14 beautiful songs he wrote between 1868 and 1884.

Dunant, Jean Henri, 1828-1910, Swiss philanthropist and founder of the International Red Cross, b. Geneva. In 1862 appeared his Un souvenir de Solférino (tr. The Origins of the Red Cross, 1911), a description of the sufferings of the wounded at the battle of Solferino and a plea for organizations to care for the war wounded. There was an immediate response. Gustave Moynier and the Société genevoise d'Utilité publique took up the cause. An international conference in 1863 led to the conference of 1864 that adopted the Geneva Convention and established the Red Cross. Dunant aided other causes and wrote several books. He shared with Frédéric Passy the first Nobel Peace Prize (1901).

Duhamel du Monceau, Henri Louis, 1700-1782, French agriculturist and tree expert. He did experimental work on plant physiology and ecology and wrote The Elements of Agriculture (1762, tr. 1764) and other standard works on agriculture and on the distribution and culture of trees and shrubs.

Dufour, Guillaume Henri, 1787-1875, Swiss general. He served in the French army under Napoleon I, and in 1847 he led the Swiss federal forces to victory against the Sonderbund. A noted cartographer, he was also the author of several military treatises and histories. Dufour presided over the first Geneva Convention, which established (1864) the International Red Cross.

Didon, Henri, 1840-1900, French Dominican preacher and writer. He became known as an eloquent preacher, especially for his eulogy on Archbishop Darboy. He was sent to Corsica by the Dominicans (1880-87) because he was suspected of leaning toward modernistic ideas. His life of Jesus, which was widely read, appeared in 1890. His Lent and Advent series of sermons were tremendously popular.

De Coster, Charles Théodore Henri, 1827-79, Belgian author, b. Munich. His collected legends from Flemish folklore (1857), written in old French style, gained him note as a medievalist. His Contes brabançons (1861) was followed by his widely known La Légende d' Ulenspiegel (1868, tr. 1918, 1922). This remarkable tale, written in archaic style and recounting the fabulous exploits of Till Eulenspiegel, has been compared with the Gargantua of Rabelais. However, the book derives more directly from the medieval satiric allegory on Reynard the Fox, apparently originally fashioned in Flanders.

Damville, Henri, comte de: see Montmorency, Henri, duc de, the elder.

Daguesseau, Henri Françis: see Aguesseau, Henri François d'.

D'Aubigné, Jean Henri Merle: see Merle d'Aubigné, Jean Henri.

Constant, Paul Henri Benjamin, baron d'Estournelles de: see Estournelles de Constant.

Constant de Rebecque, Henri Benjamin: see Constant, Benjamin.

Cinq Mars, Henri Coëffier Ruzé d'Effiat, marquis de, 1620-42, French conspirator. Introduced at court by Cardinal Richelieu at an early age, Cinq Mars rapidly rose in King Louis XIII's favor and was made master of the horse. He joined in a conspiracy with Frédéric Maurice de Bouillon and Gaston d'Orléans against the cardinal. The discovery of a secret treaty they had signed with Spain led to their arrest, and Cinq Mars and his friend, François de Thou, were executed. The conspiracy formed the basis of Alfred de Vigny's novel Cinq-Mars and Gounod's opera of the same name.

Christophe, Henri, 1767-1820, Haitian revolutionary leader. A freed black slave, he aided Toussaint L'Ouverture in the liberation of Haiti and was army chief under Dessalines. When the latter declared himself emperor, Christophe took part (1806) in a successful plot against his life and was elected president of the republic. Christophe, a pure-blooded black, then waged a savage and inconclusive struggle with Alexandre Pétion, the champion of mulatto supremacy, who retained control of S Haiti. In 1811, entrenching himself in N Haiti, Christophe declared himself king as Henri I and entered upon an energetic but tyrannical reign. He created an autocracy patterned after the absolute monarchies of Europe. Compulsory labor enriched his fiefdom. Christophe surrounded himself with lavish, and sometimes ludicrous, magnificence; the pomp and splendor of his reign are still shown by the ruins of the citadel of La Ferrière, a formidable fortress on top of a mountain, surrounded by precipitous cliffs, and of the fabulous palace of Sans Souci, at Cap Haïtien, his capital. In 1820, when he was suffering from partial paralysis, revolts broke out. In despair, Christophe committed suicide.

Chambord, Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonné, comte de, 1820-83, Bourbon claimant to the French throne, posthumous son of Charles Ferdinand, duc de Berry. His original title was duke of Bordeaux. His grandfather, Charles X, abdicated in his favor during the Revolution of 1830, and he is known to the legitimists as Henry V, although he never held the throne. He accompanied Charles into exile and spent most of the rest of his life at Frohsdorf, Austria. In 1832 his mother, Caroline de Berry, unsuccessfully attempted to overthrow Louis Philippe. Efforts to reconcile his claims with those of the Orleanist pretender, Louis Philippe Albert d'Orléans (see under Orléans, family), after the February Revolution of 1848, met with little success. In 1871, after the fall of the Second Empire, Chambord's prospects improved, and in 1873 the Orleanist pretender relinquished his claims in Chambord's favor. However, his stubborn adherence to the Bourbon flag in preference to the national flag, destroyed his chance of recognition. He died without issue, and his claims passed to the house of Bourbon-Orléans.

Cernuschi, Henri, 1821-96, Italian politician and economist. A strong republican, he was a leader in the Milan revolt of 1848 in support of Giuseppe Garibaldi. In 1850 he went to France, where he became a director of the Bank of France. Cernuschi vigorously advocated bimetallism and is said to have coined the word. His writings include many pamphlets on the subject, notably Silver Vindicated (1876).

Casgrain, Henri Raymond, 1831-1904, French Canadian historian. He traveled widely in Europe, collecting documents relevant to Canadian history, and wrote enthusiastic histories, such as Légendes canadiennes (1861), Les Pionniers canadiens (1876), and Wolfe and Montcalm ("Makers of Canada" series; rev. ed. 1926).

Cartier-Bresson, Henri, 1908-2004, French photojournalist, b. Chanteloup, near Paris. Cartier-Bresson is renowned for his countless memorable images of 20th-century individuals and events. After studying painting and being influenced by surrealism, he began (1931) a career in photography. Achieved with the simplest of techniques, his works are remarkable for their flawless composition, for their capture of what has been called "the decisive moment" in a situation, and for the sense they convey of the rush of time arrested. His photographs, characteristically taken with a 35-mm camera, are uncropped and unmanipulated. Cartier-Bresson witnessed and photographed many of his era's most historic events, from the Spanish Civil War, to the partition of India, the Chinese revolution, and France's 1968 student rebellion. He made numerous photographs of the German occupation of France and in 1944, after escaping from a Nazi prison camp, organized underground photography units. He was the author of many photographic books including The Decisive Moment (1952), People of Moscow (1955), China in Transition (1956), The World of Henri Cartier-Bresson (1968), The Face of Asia (1972), About Russia (1974), and the retrospective Henri Cartier-Bresson: Photographer (1992). A founder (1947) of the Magnum photo agency, he virtually retired from photography in the early 1970s and thenceforth largely devoted himself to drawing.

Browere, John Henri Isaac, 1792-1834, American sculptor, b. New York City, studied painting in New York under Archibald Robertson and sculpture in Europe. He is known for his life masks, many of famous Americans, which he produced in hopes of establishing a national gallery of bronze busts. Among his subjects were John Adams, John Quincy Adams, Thomas Jefferson, De Witt Clinton, and James and Dolley Madison (N.Y. State Historical Assoc., Cooperstown). The artistry of Browere's work lies in the choice of expression and the manipulation of facial details and hair; all his portraits are singularly strong in effect.

Breuil, Henri, known as Abbé Breuil, 1877-1961, French archaeologist, paleontologist, and cleric. He taught at the Institut de paléontologie humaine, Paris, after 1910. During much of his lifetime, Breuil was considered the foremost authority on Paleolithic cave art. He copied and published hundreds of examples of rock carvings and paintings from Europe and Africa and advanced the first well-informed interpretations of the significance of prehistoric art. His principal work is Four Hundred Centuries of Cave Art (tr. 1952).

Bourassa, Henri, 1868-1952, Canadian political leader and publisher, b. Montreal; grandson of Louis Joseph Papineau. He was elected as an Independent Liberal to the Canadian House of Commons in 1896 but resigned in 1899 in protest against sending Canadian troops to the South African War; he was almost immediately reelected. A man of oratorical and literary gifts, he rallied around him various groups discontented with the regime of Sir Wilfrid Laurier and welded them into a powerful opposition party in Quebec that became known as the Nationalist party; it took the stand that Canada should hold aloof from diplomatic entanglements with Great Britain and the United States. Opposing (1909-11) the bill to construct a Canadian navy, Bourassa withdrew enough support from Laurier to cause the fall of the government. In 1910 he founded, as the Nationalist journal, Le Devoir, a Montreal daily, and was its editor for many years. He led French Canadian opposition to participation in World War I, denouncing in violent terms the conscription act of 1917. His influence on Quebec's politics can still be in seen in the Parti Québécois, which advocates separation and nationalism for Quebec.

Bouillon, Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, vicomte de Turenne, duc de, 1555-1623, marshal of France, diplomat, and Protestant leader. He served with Henry IV against the Catholic League but fled (1603) to Geneva when he was ordered arrested for his part in a conspiracy against the king. Under Marie de' Medici he returned and entered the council of regency, from which he withdrew after a quarrel with the queen. He participated in a series of pro-Calvinist intrigues but later retired to his independent duchy, which he had acquired through marriage in 1591. He founded a library and a Protestant college at Sedan. Bouillon was the grandson of Anne de Montmorency and the father of Turenne.

Beyle, Marie Henri: see Stendhal.

Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, Jacques Henri, 1737-1814, French naturalist and author. He was a friend of Rousseau, by whom he was strongly influenced. His chief work, Études de la nature (1784), sought to prove the existence of God from the wonders of nature; it is rich in descriptive passages, and it added specific color terms and plant names to the French language. A section of this was the sentimental prose idyll Paul et Virginie (1788), which attained immense vogue and influenced the French romanticists.

Bergson, Henri, 1859-1941, French philosopher. He became a professor at the Collège de France in 1900, devoted some time to politics, and, after World War I, took an interest in international affairs. He is well known for his brilliant and imaginative philosophical works, which won him the 1927 Nobel Prize in Literature. Among his works that have been translated into English are Time and Free Will (1889), Matter and Memory (1896), Laughter (1901), Introduction to Metaphysics (1903), Creative Evolution (1907), The Two Sources of Morality and Religion (1932), and The Creative Mind (1934). Bergson's philosophy is dualistic—the world contains two opposing tendencies—the life force (élan vital) and the resistance of the material world against that force. Human beings know matter through their intellect, with which they measure the world. They formulate the doctrines of science and see things as entities set out as separate units within space. In contrast with intellect is intuition, which derives from the instinct of lower animals. Intuition gives us an intimation of the life force which pervades all becoming. Intuition perceives the reality of time—that it is duration directed in terms of life and not divisible or measurable. Duration is demonstrated by the phenomena of memory.

Benjamin Constant, Paul Henri: see Estournelles de Constant.

Aubigné, Jean Henri Merle d': see Merle d'Aubigné, Jean Henri.

Arnaud, Henri, 1641-1721, pastor and leader of the Waldenses. When Victor Amadeus II, duke of Savoy, in league with the French, set out to expel the Waldenses, Arnaud led (1686) a band of the Waldenses into Switzerland. In 1689 he led some of them back to their Piedmont valleys, where they withstood a combined French-Savoyard attack. In 1690, Victor Amadeus turned against the French, and Arnaud gained the favor of the duke and acted as his agent while the Waldenses fought on the side of the Savoyards and were repatriated. A new political turn sent Arnaud into exile again, and after 1699 he lived in Württemberg. He wrote an account of the return of the Waldenses, Histoire de la glorieuse rentrée des vaudois dans leurs vallées (1710, tr. 1827).

Amiel, Henri Frédéric, 1821-81, Swiss critic. He was unsuccessful and unnoticed during his life, but the posthumous publication of his Journal intime (1883, tr. of augmented ed. 1936) aroused great interest. It is a document of scrupulous self-observation.

Alkan, Charles Henri Valentin, 1813-88, French pianist and composer; his original surname was Morhange. He was a pianist of great virtuosity and wrote mainly for the piano. His most influential works were the technically formidable Études (Op. 35 and 39), which greatly enlarged the piano techniques of the day. Much of his music was program music.

Aguesseau, Henri François d', 1668-1751, French lawyer. He became procureur général in the Parlement of Paris (1700) and chancellor of France (1717). Because of his opposition to John Law he was briefly exiled to his estates. He served as chancellor again (1720-22, 1737-50) and devoted himself to judicial reform. The name also appears as Daguesseau.

(born Aug. 1, 1936, Oran, Alg.—died June 1, 2008, Paris, France) Algerian-born French fashion designer. He left for Paris after secondary school to pursue a fashion career and at 17 was hired as Christian Dior's assistant. When Dior died four years later, he was named head of the House of Dior. In 1962 he opened his own fashion house and quickly emerged as one of the world's most influential designers. He popularized trousers for women for both city and country wear. Metallic and transparent fabrics were prominent in his late '60s collections; in the 1970s, inspired by ethnic costume, he introduced the haute peasant look. During the 1960s and '70s his enterprises expanded to include ready-to-wear licenses, accessories, household linens, fragrances, and men's clothes in addition to his couture business. He retired in 2002.

Learn more about Saint Laurent, Yves (-Henri-Donat-Mathieu) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

orig. Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne

(born Sept. 11, 1611, Sedan, France—died July 27, 1675, Sasbach, Baden-Baden) French military leader. He earned his reputation as a military leader in the Thirty Years' War, especially with the capture of Turin (1640). Made a marshal of France (1643), he commanded the French army in Germany and joined the Swedish army in conquering Bavaria (1648). In France he joined the aristocrats in the Fronde (1649), but later he skillfully commanded the royal army to defeat the forces led by the prince de Condé, who had allied himself with Spain, and to bring about the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), which ended France's war with Spain. Appointed marshal-general (1660), Turenne marched alongside Louis XIV in joint command of the French armies in the War of Devolution (1667–68). His bold strategies won numerous victories against the imperial army in Germany (1672–75), but he was killed in action at Sasbach. He was buried with the kings of France at Saint-Denis and later moved to the Invalides by Napoleon, who esteemed Turenne as the greatest military leader in history.

Learn more about Turenne, Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, viscount de with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Nov. 24, 1864, Albi, France—died Sept. 9, 1901, Malromé) French painter and graphic artist. Born to an old aristocratic family, he developed his interest in art during lengthy convalescence after both his legs were fractured in separate accidents (1878, 1879) that left them permanently stunted and made walking difficult. In 1881 he resolved to become an artist; after taking instruction, he established a studio in the Montmartre district of Paris in 1884 and began his lifelong association with the area's cafés, cabarets, entertainers, and artists. He captured the effect of the movement of dancers, circus performers, and other entertainers by simplifying outlines and juxtaposing intense colours; the result was an art throbbing with life and energy. His lithographs were among his most powerful works, and his memorable posters helped define the possibilities of the genre. His pieces are often sharply satirical, but he was also capable of great sympathy, seen most poignantly in his studies of prostitutes (e.g., At the Salon, 1896). His extraordinary style helped set the course of avant-garde art for decades to come. A heavy drinker, he died at 36.

Learn more about Toulouse-Lautrec (-Monfa), Henri (-Marie-Raymond) de with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born July 29, 1805, Paris, France—died April 16, 1859, Cannes) French political scientist, historian, and politician. Born into an aristocratic family, he entered government service by choice. After the July Revolution of 1830, his position became precarious because of his family's ties to the ousted king, and he undertook a nine-month study trip to the U.S. with his friend Gustave de Beaumont. Out of it came his best-known work, Democracy in America, 4 vol. (1835–40), a highly perceptive and prescient analysis of the American political and social system, as well as of the vitality, excesses, and potential future of democracy, with attention to the situation in France. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1839 and held various political offices after the Revolution of 1848. The Old Regime and the Revolution (1856), a pessimistic analysis of French political tendencies, was the first volume of his unfinished study of the French Revolution.

Learn more about Tocqueville, Alexis (-Charles-Henri-Maurice Clérel) de with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Aug. 1, 1936, Oran, Alg.—died June 1, 2008, Paris, France) Algerian-born French fashion designer. He left for Paris after secondary school to pursue a fashion career and at 17 was hired as Christian Dior's assistant. When Dior died four years later, he was named head of the House of Dior. In 1962 he opened his own fashion house and quickly emerged as one of the world's most influential designers. He popularized trousers for women for both city and country wear. Metallic and transparent fabrics were prominent in his late '60s collections; in the 1970s, inspired by ethnic costume, he introduced the haute peasant look. During the 1960s and '70s his enterprises expanded to include ready-to-wear licenses, accessories, household linens, fragrances, and men's clothes in addition to his couture business. He retired in 2002.

Learn more about Saint Laurent, Yves (-Henri-Donat-Mathieu) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

known as Le Douanier Rousseau

(born May 21, 1844, Laval, Fr.—died Sept. 2, 1910, Paris) French painter. After service in the army, he began working as a toll collector (not as a douanier, or customs officer, the epithet his friends later used) but found time to paint and draw. Completely self-taught, he exhibited some early paintings, including Carnival Evening, at the Salon des Indépendants in 1886. Like his later works, it is typical of naive art: everything is drawn literally, the clouds look solid, and the costumes receive more attention than the figures themselves. It nonetheless achieves a striking mood and mystery. In 1893 he retired to devote himself to painting, and in 1894 his War won him his first recognition by the avant-garde. His best-known works are richly coloured images of lush jungles, wild beasts, and exotic figures. He exhibited The Hungry Lion with the Fauves in 1905. He died a pauper; only after his death was his greatness recognized.

Learn more about Rousseau, Henri with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born May 27, 1871, Paris, Fr.—died Feb. 13, 1958, Paris) French painter. His apprenticeship in a glazier's shop restoring medieval stained glass (1885–90) influenced his mature style as a painter. After an early academic period, his style evolved toward Fauvism before he established a highly personal form of Expressionism. An ardent Roman Catholic, he painted subjects apparently fallen from grace—prostitutes, tragic clowns, and pitiless judges. After 1914 his subject matter became more specifically religious, with greater emphasis on redemption, and he shifted from watercolour to oil. His layers of paint became thick and rich, his forms simplified, and his colours and black lines reminiscent of stained glass. In the 1930s he produced a splendid series on Christ's Passion, while reworking many earlier paintings. His series of clowns in the 1940s are virtual self-portraits. He also produced many engravings as well as ceramics, tapestry designs, and stained glass.

Learn more about Rouault, Georges (-Henri) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born 1579, Château of Blain, Brittany, France—died April 13, 1638, Königsfeld, Switz.) French Huguenot leader. At age 16 he entered the army of Henry IV, who made him a peer of France in 1603. After Henry's death (1610), Rohan led the Huguenots in revolt against the government of Marie de Médicis (1615–16) and became the Huguenots' foremost general in the civil wars of the 1620s. He recounted the events of the War of La Rochelle (1627–29) in his celebrated Mémoires. He then went to Venice. After his return to France (1635), he successfully commanded a French expedition against the Habsburgs in Lombardy. In 1637 he went to Switzerland, where he died in the Thirty Years' War battle at Rheinfelden.

Learn more about Rohan, Henri, duke de with a free trial on Britannica.com.

orig. Robert Henry Cozad

(born June 25, 1865, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.—died July 12, 1929, New York, N.Y.) U.S. painter. He studied in Philadelphia and Paris, taught art in Philadelphia, and, after settling in New York City in 1900, became the leader of the young realist artists known as The Eight. He exhibited with The Eight in 1908 and later at the Armory Show (1913). As a portrait painter he demonstrated facile brushwork, lively colours, and an ability to catch fleeting gestures and expressions. He is best remembered as a teacher, principally at New York's Art Students League (1915–28), where he became one of the most influential art teachers in the U.S. and a powerful force in turning young artists away from academicism and toward the rich subject matter of modern city life. His belief in the artist as a social force led to the formation of the Ash Can school.

Learn more about Henri, Robert with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Dec. 31, 1869, Le Cateau, Picardy, Fr.—died Nov. 2, 1954, Nice) French painter, sculptor, and graphic artist. He was a law clerk when he became interested in art. After study with Gustave Moreau at the École des Beaux-Arts, he exhibited four paintings at the Salon and scored a triumph when the government bought his Woman Reading (1895). Self-confident and venturesome, he experimented with pointillism but eventually abandoned it in favour of the swirls of spontaneous brushwork and riots of colour that became known as Fauvism. Though his subjects were largely domestic and figurative, his works exhibit a distinctive Mediterranean verve. He also took up sculpture and would produce some 60 pieces during his lifetime. The Armory Show exhibited 13 of his paintings. In 1917 he moved to the French Riviera, where his paintings became less daring but his output remained prodigious. After 1939 he became increasingly active as a graphic artist and in 1947 published Jazz, a book of reflections on art and life with brilliantly coloured illustrations made by “drawing with scissors”: the motifs were pasted together after being cut out of sheets of coloured paper. He was ill during most of his last 13 years; he designed the magnificent Chapelle du Rosaire at Vence (1948–51) as a gift to the Dominican nuns who cared for him. His well-known paintings include Joy of Life (1906), The Red Studio (1915), Piano Lesson (1916), and The Dance I and The Dance II (1931–33).

Learn more about Matisse, Henri (-Émile-Benoǐt) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

orig. Robert Henry Cozad

(born June 25, 1865, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.—died July 12, 1929, New York, N.Y.) U.S. painter. He studied in Philadelphia and Paris, taught art in Philadelphia, and, after settling in New York City in 1900, became the leader of the young realist artists known as The Eight. He exhibited with The Eight in 1908 and later at the Armory Show (1913). As a portrait painter he demonstrated facile brushwork, lively colours, and an ability to catch fleeting gestures and expressions. He is best remembered as a teacher, principally at New York's Art Students League (1915–28), where he became one of the most influential art teachers in the U.S. and a powerful force in turning young artists away from academicism and toward the rich subject matter of modern city life. His belief in the artist as a social force led to the formation of the Ash Can school.

Learn more about Henri, Robert with a free trial on Britannica.com.

orig. Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne

(born Sept. 11, 1611, Sedan, France—died July 27, 1675, Sasbach, Baden-Baden) French military leader. He earned his reputation as a military leader in the Thirty Years' War, especially with the capture of Turin (1640). Made a marshal of France (1643), he commanded the French army in Germany and joined the Swedish army in conquering Bavaria (1648). In France he joined the aristocrats in the Fronde (1649), but later he skillfully commanded the royal army to defeat the forces led by the prince de Condé, who had allied himself with Spain, and to bring about the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), which ended France's war with Spain. Appointed marshal-general (1660), Turenne marched alongside Louis XIV in joint command of the French armies in the War of Devolution (1667–68). His bold strategies won numerous victories against the imperial army in Germany (1672–75), but he was killed in action at Sasbach. He was buried with the kings of France at Saint-Denis and later moved to the Invalides by Napoleon, who esteemed Turenne as the greatest military leader in history.

Learn more about Turenne, Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, viscount de with a free trial on Britannica.com.

known as Le Douanier Rousseau

(born May 21, 1844, Laval, Fr.—died Sept. 2, 1910, Paris) French painter. After service in the army, he began working as a toll collector (not as a douanier, or customs officer, the epithet his friends later used) but found time to paint and draw. Completely self-taught, he exhibited some early paintings, including Carnival Evening, at the Salon des Indépendants in 1886. Like his later works, it is typical of naive art: everything is drawn literally, the clouds look solid, and the costumes receive more attention than the figures themselves. It nonetheless achieves a striking mood and mystery. In 1893 he retired to devote himself to painting, and in 1894 his War won him his first recognition by the avant-garde. His best-known works are richly coloured images of lush jungles, wild beasts, and exotic figures. He exhibited The Hungry Lion with the Fauves in 1905. He died a pauper; only after his death was his greatness recognized.

Learn more about Rousseau, Henri with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Jan. 21, 1848, Paris, France—died Feb. 12, 1933, Mont-de-Marsan) French song composer. He studied music with César Franck while also studying law. His composing career lasted about 16 years; he stopped composing at age 36 for psychological reasons. Highly self-critical, he destroyed an incomplete opera and other works and acknowledged only 13 completed songs, including “L'Invitation au voyage,” “Phidylé,” “Testament,” and “Extase,” as his lifetime oeuvre. Almost all the songs, universally admired, were originally for voice and piano; he later orchestrated eight of them.

Learn more about Duparc, (Marie-Eugène-) Henri with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Aug. 22, 1908, Chanteloup, Fr.—died Aug. 3, 2004, Céreste) French photographer. He studied art in Paris and literature and painting at the University of Cambridge. His interest in photography developed circa 1930 when he encountered the works of Eugène Atget and Man Ray. He is known for spontaneous, sequential images in still photography, a technique inspired by his enthusiasm for filmmaking. He helped establish photojournalism as an art form and with Robert Capa, David Seymour, and others founded the cooperative Magnum Photos (1947). The best known of his many collections is The Decisive Moment (1952).

Learn more about Cartier-Bresson, Henri with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Oct. 15, 1859, Paris, France—died Jan. 4, 1941, Paris) French philosopher. In Creative Evolution (1907), he argued that evolution, which he accepted as scientific fact, is not mechanistic but driven by an élan vital (“vital impulse”). He was the first to elaborate a process philosophy, rejecting static values and embracing dynamic values such as motion, change, and evolution. His writing style has been widely admired for its grace and lucidity; he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1927. Very popular in his time, he remains influential in France.

Learn more about Bergson, Henri (-Louis) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Dec. 31, 1869, Le Cateau, Picardy, Fr.—died Nov. 2, 1954, Nice) French painter, sculptor, and graphic artist. He was a law clerk when he became interested in art. After study with Gustave Moreau at the École des Beaux-Arts, he exhibited four paintings at the Salon and scored a triumph when the government bought his Woman Reading (1895). Self-confident and venturesome, he experimented with pointillism but eventually abandoned it in favour of the swirls of spontaneous brushwork and riots of colour that became known as Fauvism. Though his subjects were largely domestic and figurative, his works exhibit a distinctive Mediterranean verve. He also took up sculpture and would produce some 60 pieces during his lifetime. The Armory Show exhibited 13 of his paintings. In 1917 he moved to the French Riviera, where his paintings became less daring but his output remained prodigious. After 1939 he became increasingly active as a graphic artist and in 1947 published Jazz, a book of reflections on art and life with brilliantly coloured illustrations made by “drawing with scissors”: the motifs were pasted together after being cut out of sheets of coloured paper. He was ill during most of his last 13 years; he designed the magnificent Chapelle du Rosaire at Vence (1948–51) as a gift to the Dominican nuns who cared for him. His well-known paintings include Joy of Life (1906), The Red Studio (1915), Piano Lesson (1916), and The Dance I and The Dance II (1931–33).

Learn more about Matisse, Henri (-Émile-Benoǐt) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Oct. 15, 1859, Paris, France—died Jan. 4, 1941, Paris) French philosopher. In Creative Evolution (1907), he argued that evolution, which he accepted as scientific fact, is not mechanistic but driven by an élan vital (“vital impulse”). He was the first to elaborate a process philosophy, rejecting static values and embracing dynamic values such as motion, change, and evolution. His writing style has been widely admired for its grace and lucidity; he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1927. Very popular in his time, he remains influential in France.

Learn more about Bergson, Henri (-Louis) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born 1579, Château of Blain, Brittany, France—died April 13, 1638, Königsfeld, Switz.) French Huguenot leader. At age 16 he entered the army of Henry IV, who made him a peer of France in 1603. After Henry's death (1610), Rohan led the Huguenots in revolt against the government of Marie de Médicis (1615–16) and became the Huguenots' foremost general in the civil wars of the 1620s. He recounted the events of the War of La Rochelle (1627–29) in his celebrated Mémoires. He then went to Venice. After his return to France (1635), he successfully commanded a French expedition against the Habsburgs in Lombardy. In 1637 he went to Switzerland, where he died in the Thirty Years' War battle at Rheinfelden.

Learn more about Rohan, Henri, duke de with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born May 27, 1871, Paris, Fr.—died Feb. 13, 1958, Paris) French painter. His apprenticeship in a glazier's shop restoring medieval stained glass (1885–90) influenced his mature style as a painter. After an early academic period, his style evolved toward Fauvism before he established a highly personal form of Expressionism. An ardent Roman Catholic, he painted subjects apparently fallen from grace—prostitutes, tragic clowns, and pitiless judges. After 1914 his subject matter became more specifically religious, with greater emphasis on redemption, and he shifted from watercolour to oil. His layers of paint became thick and rich, his forms simplified, and his colours and black lines reminiscent of stained glass. In the 1930s he produced a splendid series on Christ's Passion, while reworking many earlier paintings. His series of clowns in the 1940s are virtual self-portraits. He also produced many engravings as well as ceramics, tapestry designs, and stained glass.

Learn more about Rouault, Georges (-Henri) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born June 7, 1848, Paris, France—died May 8, 1903, Atuona, Hiva Oa, Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia) French painter, sculptor, and printmaker. He spent his childhood in Lima (his mother was a Peruvian Creole). From circa 1872 to 1883 he was a successful stockbroker in Paris. He met Camille Pissarro about 1875, and he exhibited several times with the Impressionists. Disillusioned with bourgeois materialism, in 1886 he moved to Pont-Aven, Brittany, where he became the central figure of a group of artists known as the Pont-Aven school. Gauguin coined the term “Synthetism” to describe his style during this period, referring to the synthesis of his paintings' formal elements with the idea or emotion they conveyed. Late in October 1888 Gauguin traveled to Arles, in the south of France, to stay with Vincent van Gogh. The style of the two men's work from this period has been classified as Post-Impressionist because it shows an individual, personal development of Impressionism's use of colour, brushstroke, and nontraditional subject matter. Increasingly focused on rejecting the materialism of contemporary culture in favour of a more spiritual, unfettered lifestyle, in 1891 he moved to Tahiti. His works became open protests against materialism. He was an influential innovator; Fauvism owed much to his use of colour, and he inspired Pablo Picasso and the development of Cubism.

Learn more about Gauguin, (Eugène-Henri-) Paul with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Oct. 25, 1767, Lausanne, Switz.—died Dec. 8, 1830, Paris, France) French-Swiss novelist and political writer. He had a tumultuous 12-year relationship with Germaine de Staël, whose views influenced him to support the French Revolution and subsequently to oppose Napoleon, for which he was exiled (1803–14). He later served in the Chamber of Deputies (1819–30). Adolphe (1816) was a forerunner of the modern psychological novel. Among his other works are the long historical analysis of religious feeling De la Religion, 5 vol. (1824–31) and his revealing journals (first complete publication, 1952).

Learn more about Constant (de Rebecque), (Henri-) Benjamin with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Aug. 22, 1908, Chanteloup, Fr.—died Aug. 3, 2004, Céreste) French photographer. He studied art in Paris and literature and painting at the University of Cambridge. His interest in photography developed circa 1930 when he encountered the works of Eugène Atget and Man Ray. He is known for spontaneous, sequential images in still photography, a technique inspired by his enthusiasm for filmmaking. He helped establish photojournalism as an art form and with Robert Capa, David Seymour, and others founded the cooperative Magnum Photos (1947). The best known of his many collections is The Decisive Moment (1952).

Learn more about Cartier-Bresson, Henri with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born July 29, 1805, Paris, France—died April 16, 1859, Cannes) French political scientist, historian, and politician. Born into an aristocratic family, he entered government service by choice. After the July Revolution of 1830, his position became precarious because of his family's ties to the ousted king, and he undertook a nine-month study trip to the U.S. with his friend Gustave de Beaumont. Out of it came his best-known work, Democracy in America, 4 vol. (1835–40), a highly perceptive and prescient analysis of the American political and social system, as well as of the vitality, excesses, and potential future of democracy, with attention to the situation in France. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1839 and held various political offices after the Revolution of 1848. The Old Regime and the Revolution (1856), a pessimistic analysis of French political tendencies, was the first volume of his unfinished study of the French Revolution.

Learn more about Tocqueville, Alexis (-Charles-Henri-Maurice Clérel) de with a free trial on Britannica.com.