Stephens, Alexander Hamilton, 1812-83, American political leader, Confederate vice president (1861-65), b. Taliaferro co. (then part of Wilkes co.), Ga. He was admitted to the bar in 1834, served six terms in the Georgia legislature, and was a Whig (later a Democratic) Representative in Congress from 1843 to 1859. Stephens, together with Howell Cobb and Robert Toombs, was influential in Georgia's acceptance of the Compromise of 1850, and with them he organized in the state the short-lived Constitutional Union party. He voted against secession in the Georgia convention of 1861, but accepted his state's decision and was a delegate to the convention in Montgomery, where the Confederacy was born. As vice president, Stephens consistently opposed the policies of Jefferson Davis, objecting notably to conscription and to suspension of the writ of habeas corpus. An early advocate of peace, he was one of three Confederate commissioners to the Hampton Roads Peace Conference. After the Civil War, Stephens was arrested and interned for several months in Fort Warren, Boston. After his release, he was elected (1866) to the U.S. Senate but was not allowed to take his seat. He then applied himself to the writing of Constitutional View of the Late War between the States (2 vol., 1868-70), considered the ablest defense of the right of secession. He served again in Congress from 1873 to 1882, when he was elected governor of Georgia.

Smith, Hamilton Othanel, 1931-, American biologist, b. New York City, M.D. Johns Hopkins Univ., 1956. A professor at the Univ. of Michigan and Johns Hopkins Univ., Smith worked with Daniel Nathans and Werner Arber studying the nature of genes. The trio discovered and used certain enzymes that break down genetic material in order to study hereditary mutation in bacteria. For their work the three received the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with David H. Hubel and Tosten N. Wiesel.

Lee of Fareham, Arthur Hamilton Lee, 1st Viscount, 1868-1947, British politician. He was (1900-1918) a Conservative member of the House of Commons. During World War I, Lee was military secretary to David Lloyd George (1916) and director-general of food production (1917-18). He was later minister of agriculture (1919-21), first lord of the admiralty (1921-22), and a delegate to the Washington Naval Conference (1921-22). He was raised to the peerage in 1918. In 1921 he presented Chequers, his estate, to the nation as a country residence for the prime minister.

Johnston, Sir Harry Hamilton, 1858-1927, British explorer and colonial official. His early interest in the natural sciences was combined with his concern for the political problems of colonial Africa. He began his first trip to sub-Saharan Africa in 1882 and in 1883 encountered Henry Morton Stanley in the Congo Basin. In 1884 he made an expedition to Mt. Kilimanjaro that uncovered valuable scientific data and strengthened Britain's political hold in East Africa. Johnston entered the foreign service in 1885; he served in colonial administrative positions in many parts of Africa and established a British protectorate over Nyasaland (present-day Malawi). After his retirement (1902) he continued his naturalist studies. He was knighted in 1896.

Hoyer, Steny Hamilton, 1939-, U.S. politician, b. New York City, grad. Univ. of Maryland (B.S. 1963), Georgetown Univ. Law Center (J.D., 1966). A pragmatic centrist Democrat, he served in the Maryland state senate from 1966 to 1979, the last four years as its president. First elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1981 (in a special election), he became House Democratic whip in 2003 and majority leader in 2007.

Hayne, Paul Hamilton, 1830-86, American poet, b. Charleston, S.C., grad. Charleston College. Considered the last of the Southern literary cavaliers, he wrote a book of nature poetry (1855) and edited Russel's Magazine (1857-60). He was left impoverished by the Civil War and took refuge on a small estate in Georgia. There he wrote Legends and Lyrics (1872), a collection of delicate, charming poems that is considered his most mature work.

Hamilton, William Hamilton, 2d duke of, 1616-51, Scottish nobleman. With his brother James Hamilton, 3d marquess and 1st duke of Hamilton, he gained favor with Charles I of England. He was created (1639) earl of Lanark and made (1640) secretary of state for Scotland. In 1643, on Charles's orders, he was arrested with his brother for supposed implication in the latter's intrigues, but he escaped (1644). He regained favor when he went in 1646 as one of the Scottish commissioners to treat with Charles at Newcastle. In 1647 he was one of the signers for the Scots of the treaty with Charles known as the Engagement, and he helped to organize the second civil war. After the Scottish defeat at Preston (1648), he fled to Holland. He returned in 1650 with Charles II and joined the Scottish invasion of England. He died of wounds received at the battle of Worcester.

Hamilton, William, 1704-54, English poet, b. Scotland. He is best known for the poem "The Braes of Yarrow" (1724).

Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, 1805-65, Irish mathematician and astronomer, b. Dublin. A child prodigy, he had mastered 13 languages by the age of 13 and was still an undergraduate when he became professor of astronomy at the Univ. of Dublin (1827). Hamilton was one of the most original and creative mathematicians of his time. In his Theory of Systems of Rays (1828) he predicted the existence of conical refraction (later confirmed experimentally by H. Lloyd) and unified the field of optics under the principle of varying action, which he later extended to dynamics and which has become of fundamental importance in modern physics, particularly quantum theory. His later years, which were marred by personal problems, were largely devoted to the invention and development of his theory of quaternions. Although he believed this work to be his most important, quaternions have been superseded in many applications by the methods of vector and tensor analysis. Of some import, however, was his discovery that the algebra of quaternions does not follow the commutative law; it opened the way for the discovery and development of numerous types of abstract algebras by later mathematicians.

Hamilton, Sir William, 1730-1803, British diplomat and archaeologist, ambassador to Naples (1764-1800). He was the husband of Emma, Lady Hamilton, mistress of Admiral Horatio Nelson. His fine collection of antiquities from Pompeii was sold to the British Museum in 1772 and stimulated English interest in the art of the classical civilizations. His publications include Antiquités étrusques, greques et romaines (1766-67) and Mount Vesuvius (1772).

Hamilton, Sir William, 1788-1856, Scottish philosopher. He was widely interested in law, physiology, and literature and was professor of history and philosophy at the Univ. of Edinburgh. Hamilton helped to reestablish the waning fame of the Scottish school of metaphysics. His "Philosophy of the Unconditioned" (1829), a critique of Cousin's Cours de philosophie published in the Edinburgh Review, publicized his views on the infinite, which he considered unknowable. Under the influence of Kant, he conceived of the world that man knows as finite and conditioned in terms of space, time, and degree. In logic his attempt to "quantify the predicate" was a crude anticipation of later developments in mathematical logic. The British academic outlook was broadened by his emphasis on the German philosophers and on Aristotle. His son, Francis, published his Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic (ed. by H. L. Mansel and John Veitch, 4 vol., 1859-60, repr. 1969).

Hamilton, Sir Ian Standish Monteith, 1853-1947, British general. He served in many campaigns in Asia and Africa, distinguishing himself in the South African War (1899-1902). He was military attaché with the Japanese in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5). During World War I he commanded (1915) the Mediterranean expeditionary force in the abortive Gallipoli campaign. Relieved of his command, he spent his later years in pacifistic activities. His books include The Millennium? (1918), Gallipoli Diary (1920), and Listening for the Drums (1944).

Hamilton, Patrick, 1504?-1528, Scottish Protestant martyr. While at St. Andrews, he was suspected of Lutheran sympathies. He fled (1527) to Germany, where, during his short stay, he met Luther and Melanchthon. In Germany he wrote Loci communes, known as Patrick's Places, embodying the doctrines of the Reformation. When Hamilton returned in 1527 to Scotland, he was charged with heresy, sentenced by Archbishop Beaton, and burned at the stake in 1528.

Hamilton, Mount, peak 4,372 ft (1,333 m) high, W Calif., in the Coast Ranges, E of San Jose. It is the site of Lick Observatory (built 1876-88), directed by the Univ. of California Observatories.

Hamilton, Lee Herbert, 1931-, U.S. politician, b. Daytona Beach, Fla. A lawyer (J.D. Indiana Univ., 1956), he left private practice after winning a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1964, and served 17 terms as an Indiana Democrat. In Congress he was a leading Democratic spokesman on foreign policy and served as chair of the foreign affairs committee (1993-95). He retired in 1999, and became president and director of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars in Washington, D.C. Hamilton also has served, among other posts, as vice chair of the 9/11 Commission (officially the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States; 2002-4), which assessed the circumstances surrounding the Sept. 11, 2001, terror attacks against the United States and made recommendations based on its assessments; and as co-chair of the Iraq Study Group (2006), commissioned by Congress to assess the situation in U.S.-occupied Iraq.

Hamilton, John Hamilton, 1st marquess of, 1532-1604, Scottish nobleman; second son of James Hamilton, 2d earl of Arran. He was in his earlier years hostile to Mary Queen of Scots, but he later became her supporter and as a result forfeited his lands. In revenge he was party to the murder (1570) of the regent, James Stuart, 1st earl of Murray. In 1573 Hamilton represented his family at the Pacification of Perth, when the Hamiltons acknowledged Mary's son, James VI (later James I of England), as king. The death of his father in 1575 made him the nearest heir to the throne of Scotland and placed him at the head of the Hamilton family because of the insanity of his elder brother James, 3d earl of Arran. In 1579 proceedings were started against him in connection with Murray's murder, and he fled to England, where he tried unsuccessfully to secure support. With other banished lords he returned to Scotland in 1585, was reconciled with James, and thereafter enjoyed possession of his family's estates and the favor and confidence of the king. He was created marquess in 1599.

Hamilton, James, 3d earl of Arran, 1530-1609, Scottish nobleman; son of James Hamilton, 2d earl of Arran. He spent some years (1550-58) as a soldier in France, but his espousal of Protestantism brought his recall to Scotland, where his father, with the concurrence of John Knox, unsuccessfully proposed him as a suitor for Elizabeth I of England and then for Mary Queen of Scots. In 1562 he accused the earl of Bothwell of conspiring to abduct Queen Mary. He was clearly insane, however, and as a result was imprisoned until 1566. Arran succeeded to his father's estates in 1575, but because of his insanity he was placed under the care of his brother, John Hamilton, 1st marquess of Hamilton. The Arran estates and title were forfeited to James Stuart (see Stuart, James, earl of Arran) in 1580 but restored in 1585. Arran, however, remained in confinement for the rest of his life.

Hamilton, James, 2d earl of Arran, d. 1575, Scottish nobleman; son of James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran. After the death (1542) of James V, he stood next in line to the throne after the infant Mary Queen of Scots. A Protestant and member of the pro-English party, he was chosen regent in preference to Cardinal David Beaton. However, in 1543 he became a Catholic and joined the French party. Although he had previously negotiated a marriage treaty with England, he consented to the marriage of the young queen to the French dauphin (later Francis II) and was created (1548) duc de Châtelherault in France. Forced (1554) to give up the regency to the queen mother, Mary of Guise, he joined (1559) the Protestant uprising of the lords of the congregation. He was exiled from Scotland after Queen Mary married Lord Darnley (1565). In 1569 he returned and was imprisoned until he agreed (1573) to recognize James VI (later James I of England) as king.

Hamilton, James, 1st earl of Arran, 1477?-1529, Scottish nobleman; son of the 1st Baron Hamilton and Mary, daughter of James II of Scotland. He was privy councilor to James IV, by whom he was created (1503) earl of Arran. After the death (1513) of James and the marriage of his widow, Margaret Tudor, to Archibald Douglas, 6th earl of Angus, Arran opposed their custody of the young James V. He rebelled against the new regent, John Stuart, duke of Albany, in 1515 but thereafter supported him, serving on the council of regency during Albany's absences (1517-20 and 1522-24). When Angus returned (1524) to Scotland, Arran had to come to terms with him and assisted him in keeping the king prisoner. After James's escape (1528), however, Arran joined the royal party.

Hamilton, James Hamilton, 3d marquess and 1st duke of, 1606-49, Scottish nobleman; grandson of John Hamilton, 1st marquess of Hamilton. He succeeded (1625) his father as marquess of Hamilton and earl of Cambridge and was appointed (1628) privy councilor in Scotland. He raised (1630) an army to fight under Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in the Thirty Years War, but his expedition ended in disaster (1633). As Charles I's commissioner in Scotland, he tried to conciliate the Covenanters in 1638 and, failing, led a force against them in the first Bishops' War. Later his attempt to come to terms with Archibald Campbell, 8th earl of Argyll, apparently gave rise (1641) to the obscure plot known as the Incident, devised by James Graham, 5th earl of Montrose, to seize and probably murder Hamilton, his brother William (later 2d duke of Hamilton), and Argyll. Hamilton escaped and managed to retain the confidence of the king, being created duke in 1643. In 1644, however, he was imprisoned by Charles on suspicion of treachery, and he was freed only by parliamentary troops in 1646. In 1648, Hamilton secured ratification in the Scottish Parliament of the agreement known as the Engagement between Charles and the Scots and led the Scottish army that invaded England. Defeated at Preston, he was captured, tried by the same court that condemned Charles, and executed.

Hamilton, James Douglas, 4th duke of, 1658-1712, Scottish nobleman. He served at the courts of Charles II and James II and remained, after his grudging acceptance of William III, a sympathizer with the Jacobites. He became duke of Hamilton in 1698 and, although he had opposed the union of Scotland with England, entered the united Parliament as a representative Scottish peer in 1708. Coming into favor with the Tory regime after 1710, he was made privy councilor (1710), duke of Brandon (1711), and ambassador to Paris (1712). He was killed in a duel by Lord Mohun before he could go to France. Suspicion of foul play caused the Tories to accuse the Whigs of murdering him, alleging that the Whigs feared he was about to engineer a Jacobite restoration from France. The duel is described in Thackeray's Henry Esmond.

Hamilton, Emma, Lady, 1765?-1815, mistress of the British naval hero Horatio Nelson. Born Emma Lyon, she became the mistress of Charles Greville, then of Sir William Hamilton, ambassador to Naples, whom she married (1791). She gained enormous influence with Neapolitan Queen Marie Caroline. Her intimacy with Nelson began in 1798, and after returning to England with him, she bore him a daughter, Horatia, in 1801. Although she received legacies from both her husband and Nelson, she died in debt and obscurity. Portraits of her were painted by many of the famous artists of her day, especially George Romney.

Hamilton, Anthony, 1646?-1720, French author of Scottish descent, b. Ireland. He spent much time in France, where he became a master of the French language. He fought in the Dutch Wars for Louis XIV and commanded an Irish regiment for James II in 1687. His most celebrated work is the Mémoires du comte de Grammont (1713), based on the life of his brother-in-law, Philibert, comte de Gramont. They are especially valuable for their pictures of life at the court of Charles II.

Hamilton, Andrew Jackson, 1815-75, American politician, b. Huntsville, Ala. Moving to Texas in 1846, he served (1849) as attorney general, was a member of the legislature (1851-53), and in 1859 was elected as a Unionist to the U.S. House of Representatives. He returned (1861) to the state legislature, but after the outbreak of the Civil War he fled (1862) to Washington. Abraham Lincoln appointed him a brigadier general of volunteers and military governor of Texas, and in June, 1865, he was made provisional governor by Andrew Johnson. Hamilton pressed for equal civil rights for whites and blacks, but the state constitutional convention (1866) rejected his program. As leader of the conservative Republicans, he ran (1869) unsuccessfully for governor.

Hamilton, Andrew, d. 1703, colonial governor of New Jersey, b. Scotland. Becoming deputy governor of East Jersey in 1687, Hamilton defended the proprietors against popular opposition and shortly had to leave the colony. In 1692 he was commissioned governor of East and West Jersey, but after five years of effective administration he was removed by the proprietors to please the crown. When he was recalled he could not restore authority. Appointed deputy postmaster general for the colonies in 1692, Hamilton induced several colonies to set up uniform postal rates. In 1701, William Penn appointed him deputy governor of Pennsylvania, a post he held until his death.

Hamilton, Andrew, 1676?-1741, colonial American lawyer, defender of John Peter Zenger, b. Scotland. He practiced law in Maryland and then Pennsylvania, where he became (1717) attorney general and held other offices. When the governing party in New York had disbarred all local lawyers who ventured to defend Zenger, Hamilton was brought in and by his brilliant defense secured Zenger's acquittal (1735), establishing truth as a defense against libel charges.

Hamilton, Alice, 1869-1970, American toxicologist, physician, and educator, b. New York City, M.D. Univ. of Michigan, 1893; she continued her studies in Germany. A pioneer in industrial diseases and hygiene, she joined the faculty of Harvard Medical School in 1919 and became emeritus professor of industrial medicine in 1935. Her services as an outstanding authority on industrial conditions, ailments, and poisons were eagerly sought by political and government agencies. She worked with the state of Illinois, the U.S. Dept. of Commerce, and the health committee of the League of Nations. Her publications include Industrial Poisoning in the United States (1925), Industrial Toxicology (1934), and Exploring the Dangerous Trades, an autobiography (1943).

Hamilton, Alexander, 1755-1804, American statesman, b. Nevis, in the West Indies.

Early Career

He was the illegitimate son of James Hamilton (of a prominent Scottish family) and Rachel Faucett Lavien (daughter of a doctor-planter on Nevis and the estranged wife of a merchant). Orphaned and impoverished at around the age of 12, the brilliant, ambitious youth arrived in the North American colonies late in 1772 and studied (1773-74) at King's College (now Columbia). In the troubled times leading to the American Revolution, he wrote articles and pamphlets espousing the colonial cause so well that the works were popularly attributed to John Jay.

In the war he became a captain of artillery, attracted George Washington's notice, and, as Washington's secretary and aide-de-camp, performed invaluable services. Desiring more active duty, he left Washington's staff in 1781 and performed brilliantly in the field at Yorktown. His marriage to Elizabeth Schuyler, daughter of Gen. Philip J. Schuyler, connected him with an old and powerful New York family. He practiced law in New York City and was a member of the Continental Congress.

Federalist Leader

By 1780 Hamilton had outlined a plan of government with a strong central authority to replace the weak system of the Articles of Confederation, and as delegate (1782-83) to the Continental Congress he pressed continually for strengthening of the national government. It was Hamilton who proposed at the unsuccessful Annapolis Convention (1786) that a constitutional convention be called at Philadelphia in May, 1787, and he was one of New York's three delegates when it was convened.

Although he believed the Constitution to be deficient in the powers that it gave the national government, he did much to get it ratified, particularly by means of his contributions to The Federalist. In New York, Hamilton was a powerful constitutional supporter, fighting vigorously against the opposition of George Clinton and becoming perhaps the strongest advocate of the new instrument of government aside from James Madison.

In the first decade of the republic, Hamilton played a decisive role in shaping domestic and foreign policy. As Secretary of the Treasury under George Washington, he presented (1790) a far-reaching financial program to the first Congress. He proposed that the debt accumulated by the Continental Congress be paid in full, that the federal government assume all state debts, and that a Bank of the United States be chartered. For revenue, Hamilton advocated a tariff on imported manufactures and a series of excise taxes. He hoped by these measures to strengthen the national government at the expense of the states and to tie government to men of wealth and prosperity.

Hamilton was a well-to-do lawyer and banker (he helped to found the Bank of New York), and his own high connections aroused suspicion among the less conservative; his policies alienated agrarian interests and drew opposition from those who feared concentration of power in the federal government. Widespread antipathy to party divisions muted the opposition, however, and Congress adopted the Hamiltonian program.

Foreign affairs soon brought this unity to an end. Hamilton's program depended for success on continued trade with Great Britain. He supported Jay's Treaty (1794), and, opposed to the French Revolution, encouraged strong measures against France in the near-war of 1798—measures bitterly opposed by the pro-French Thomas Jefferson.

Two opposing parties formed: the Federalists, led by Hamilton and John Adams (then President), and the Democratic Republicans (see Democratic party), led by Jefferson and James Madison. Hamilton was perhaps the most powerful of the Federalists, but he was not in complete command of the party (he had even resigned his cabinet post in 1795, largely for financial reasons). There was little personal liking between Hamilton and Adams, and friction between them grew in the course of the Adams administration. Both were swept under in the election of 1800.

Because the Constitution did not provide for the election of the President and Vice President on separate ballots, a tie between Jefferson and his running mate, Aaron Burr, left the choice of chief executive to the House of Representatives in 1800. Hamilton's influence made Jefferson President and Burr Vice President—an outcome in accord with the popular will, but Burr was disgruntled.

When in 1804 Hamilton again thwarted Burr, keeping him from the governorship of New York, Burr accused Hamilton of having called him a "dangerous" man and, when Hamilton replied to the charge, challenged him to a duel. The two men met at Weehawken Heights, N.J., and Hamilton was mortally wounded.

Hamilton Inlet: see Melville, Lake, Canada.

Hamilton Grange National Memorial: see National Parks and Monuments (table).

Hamilton College, at Clinton, N.Y.; coeducational; founded 1793 by Samuel Kirkland as Hamilton-Oneida Academy, chartered 1812 as Hamilton College. It was named for Alexander Hamilton. Originally a men's college, the school began admitting women in 1979. Hamilton is noted for its liberal arts curriculum.

Hamilton, city (1990 est. pop. 3,100), capital of Bermuda, on Bermuda Island. It is a port at the head of Great Sound, a huge lagoon and deepwater harbor protected by coral reefs. The city is the focus of Bermuda's commercial and social life and is a major tourist resort.

Hamilton, city (1991 pop. 318,499), S Ont., Canada, at the western end of Lake Ontario. It is situated on a narrow plain between its harbor (connected by canal with the lake) and the Niagara escarpment. Hamilton is an important port, transportation center, and manufacturing city. It is Canada's leading producer of iron and steel; other manufactures include automobiles, heavy machinery, chemicals, and electrical, paper, and textile products.

The site was settled by United Empire Loyalists in 1778. It became an important port city with the opening (1830) of the Burlington Canal, which linked Hamilton Harbor with Lake Ontario. Places of interest include the Royal Botanical Gardens, the open-air market, the historical museum in Dundern Park, and the Canadian Football Hall of Fame. McMaster Univ. (1887) is in the city, which is also home to a Canadian Football League team.

Hamilton, city (1996 pop. 108,429), N central North Island, New Zealand, on the Waikato River. Situated between Auckland and Wellington, Hamilton is the transportation and industrial center of a densely populated dairy area. The Univ. of Waikato, founded in 1964, is in the city.

Hamilton, town (1991 pop. 51,667), South Lanarkshire, S central Scotland, near the confluence of the Avon and the Clyde rivers. Once known for its coal mining, Hamilton's industries have developed to include light engineering, textiles, and food processing. It is also a market town for fruits, vegetables, and dairy goods.

Hamilton, city (1990 pop. 61,368), seat of Butler co., SW Ohio, on the Great Miami River; inc. 1857. An agricultural trading and manufacturing center, Hamilton has paper and pulp mills and produces safes, machinery, chemicals, textiles, and auto parts. Steel and insurance are also important. Hamilton was settled on the site of Fort Hamilton, built in 1791. William Dean Howells was raised there. Points of interest include the Soldiers', Sailors', and Pioneers' Monument and the county historical society. Miami Univ. of Ohio has a branch in Hamilton.

Hamilton, river, Labrador, N.L., Canada: see Churchill 1, river.

Fish, Hamilton, 1808-93, American statesman, b. New York City, grad. Columbia, 1827; son of Nicholas Fish (1758-1833). He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1830.

Named for his father's friend Alexander Hamilton, and heir to the Federalist tradition, Fish naturally gravitated to politics as a Whig. He served as U.S. Representative (1843-45) and was elected lieutenant governor of New York in 1847 and governor, for a two-year term, in 1848. From 1851 to 1857, Fish was a U.S. Senator, serving on the foreign relations committee in 1855-57. A moderate antislavery man, he opposed both abolitionist and proslavery excesses and deplored the breakup of the Whigs as a national party. Slow to join the new Republican party, he lost his national political standing but became prominent in civic activities in New York.

Fish was one of many to lionize the victorious Civil War general Ulysses S. Grant, but his appointment (Mar., 1869) as Grant's Secretary of State, to succeed the grossly miscast Elihu B. Washburne, came as a surprise. He accepted reluctantly and expected to hold the office for only a few months, but actually remained in the cabinet longer than any other member, serving through both of Grant's administrations.

Fish was one of the ablest of U.S. Secretaries of State. Grant was much impressed with Fish's character and ability, and he called upon Fish's aid in the administration of domestic affairs as well. Fish's greatest achievement as Secretary was bringing about the treaty (see Washington, Treaty of) that paved the way for settlement of the Alabama claims and other long-standing disputes with Great Britain. This was accomplished amid great difficulties, especially those offered by the vigorously anti-British chairman of the Senate foreign relations committee, Charles Sumner.

The period was one of constant trouble with Spain, arising out of the Ten Years War, and Fish was hard pressed to persuade Grant not to recognize the belligerency of Cuba. Under Fish's vigilant eye filibustering expeditions from the United States to Cuba were kept to a minimum, but the Virginius affair in 1873 nearly brought the nation, long sympathetic to the Cuban cause, to war with Spain. To secure Grant's support of other policies Fish supported without enthusiasm the President's unsuccessful project to annex the Dominican Republic.

Fish, Hamilton, 1849-1936: see Fish, family.

Fish, Hamilton, 1888-1991: see Fish, family.

Fish, Hamilton, 1926-96: see Fish, family.

Dufferin and Ava, Frederick Temple Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st marquess of, 1826-1902, British diplomat. He served on numerous missions abroad, as governor-general of Canada (1872-78), ambassador to Russia (1879-81), ambassador to Turkey (1881-82), commissioner to Egypt (1882-83), viceroy of India (1884-88), ambassador to Italy (1888-91), and ambassador to France (1891-96). His administration in India saw the annexation (1886) of Myanmar and an improvement in relations with the Afghans.

Couper, James Hamilton, 1794-1866, American planter of Georgia, grad. Yale, 1814. Influential in promoting agricultural research and experimentation, he was a pioneer in the cultivation of rice, long-staple cotton, and sugarcane and introduced new plants, including Bermuda grass.

Barr, Alfred Hamilton, Jr., 1902-81, American art historian, b. Detroit. Barr taught art history at several colleges and was the first director of the Museum of Modern Art, New York City. He organized more than 100 museum exhibitions and wrote a number of standard art history texts. These include Cubism and Abstract Art (1936); Picasso (1946); Matisse (1951).

Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th earl of, 1784-1860, British statesman. He served (1813) as ambassador extraordinary at Vienna and helped arrange (1814) the peace terms at Paris after Napoleon I's initial defeat. He was foreign secretary (1828-30) in the duke of Wellington's cabinet and secretary for war and the colonies (1834-35) under Sir Robert Peel. As foreign secretary (1841-46) in Peel's second government, he settled two boundary disputes with the United States, the Northeast Boundary Dispute by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842), and the Oregon controversy by the treaty of 1846. He also improved relations with France. He supported Peel in repealing the corn laws (1846) and resigned with him. As prime minister (1852-55), Aberdeen headed a brilliant coalition ministry and was quite successful in home affairs. He was, however, unable to prevent Viscount Palmerston and others in his cabinet from involving England on the side of the Ottoman Empire in the Crimean War. Bad management of the campaigns and unpopularity of the war forced his resignation in 1855.

(born Feb. 11, 1812, Wilkes county, Ga., U.S.—died March 4, 1883, Atlanta, Ga.) U.S. politician. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1843–59), where he defended slavery but opposed dissolution of the Union. When Georgia seceded, he was elected vice president of the Confederacy. He supported constitutional government, opposed attempts by Jefferson Davis to infringe on individuals' rights, and advocated a program of prisoner exchanges. He led the delegation to the Hampton Roads Conference (1865). After the war he was held in Boston for five months. He served again in the House (1873–82) and as governor of Georgia (1882–83).

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(born Aug. 23, 1931, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. microbiologist. He received his M.D. from Johns Hopkins University. While studying the mechanism whereby the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae takes up DNA from a particular bacteriophage, Smith, Werner Arber, and Daniel Nathans discovered the first of what came to be called type II restriction enzymes. Whereas previously studied restriction enzymes cut DNA at unpredictable points, the type II enzymes' predictability allowed the scientists to cut DNA at a particular point. The enzymes have become valuable tools in the study of DNA structure and in recombinant DNA technology. The three shared a 1978 Nobel Prize.

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orig. James Fletcher Henderson

(born Dec. 18, 1898, Cuthbert, Ga., U.S.—died Dec. 29, 1952, New York, N.Y.) U.S. pianist, arranger, and leader of one of the most influential big bands in jazz. Henderson formed a dance band in New York in 1923. The band soon distinguished itself in two ways: the engagement of Louis Armstrong as principal soloist placed greater emphasis on swinging improvisation and the arrangements by Henderson and Don Redman (1900–64) codified the roles of the sections within the ensemble to replace the collective improvisation of early jazz groups. Nearly all big bands subsequently followed their example. A poor businessman, he was forced to dissolve his band several times, but his arrangements played a key role in the success of Benny Goodman in the late 1930s and provided a template for much of the music of the swing era.

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orig. Amy Lyon

(born circa 1761, Great Neston, Cheshire, Eng.—died Jan. 15, 1815, Calais, France) English social figure, mistress of Horatio Nelson. In 1786 she became the mistress, and in 1791 the wife, of Sir William Hamilton (1730–1803), British envoy to Naples. A beautiful woman whose portrait was frequently painted by George Romney, she was a favourite in Neapolitan society. She became Nelson's mistress in 1798 and gave birth to their daughter, Horatia, in 1801, then lived with Nelson after her husband's death (1803). She later squandered the money both men left her, was imprisoned for debt (1813–14), and died in poverty.

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(born Jan. 11, 1755/57, Nevis, British West Indies—died July 12, 1804, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. statesman. He first came to the U.S. in 1772, arriving in New Jersey. In the American Revolution he joined the Continental Army and showed conspicuous bravery at the Battle of Trenton (see Battles of Trenton and Princeton). He served as aide-de-camp to Gen. George Washington (1777–81); fluent in French, he became a liaison with French commanders. After the war he practiced law in New York. At the Continental Congress, he argued for a strong central government. As a delegate to the Annapolis Convention in 1786, he drafted the address that led to the Constitutional Convention. With James Madison and John Jay, he wrote an influential series of essays, later known as the Federalist papers, in defense of the new Constitution and republican government. Appointed the first secretary of the treasury (1789), Hamilton developed fiscal policies designed to strengthen the national government at the expense of the states. His proposal for a Bank of the United States was opposed by Thomas Jefferson but adopted by Congress in 1791. Differences between Hamilton and Jefferson over the powers of the national government and the country's foreign policy led to the rise of political parties; Hamilton became leader of the Federalist Party, and Madison and Jefferson created the Democratic-Republican Party. Hamilton favoured friendship with Britain and influenced Washington to take a neutral stand toward the French Revolution. In 1796 he caused a rift in the Federalist Party by opposing its nomination of John Adams for president. In 1800 he tried to prevent Adams's reelection, circulating a private attack that Aaron Burr, long at odds with Hamilton, obtained and published. When Jefferson and Burr both defeated Adams but received an equal number of electoral votes, Hamilton helped persuade the Federalists in the House of Representatives to choose Jefferson. In 1804 he opposed Burr's candidacy for governor of New York. This affront, coupled with alleged remarks questioning Burr's character, led Burr to challenge Hamilton to a duel, in which Hamilton was mortally wounded.

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(born Aug. 23, 1931, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. microbiologist. He received his M.D. from Johns Hopkins University. While studying the mechanism whereby the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae takes up DNA from a particular bacteriophage, Smith, Werner Arber, and Daniel Nathans discovered the first of what came to be called type II restriction enzymes. Whereas previously studied restriction enzymes cut DNA at unpredictable points, the type II enzymes' predictability allowed the scientists to cut DNA at a particular point. The enzymes have become valuable tools in the study of DNA structure and in recombinant DNA technology. The three shared a 1978 Nobel Prize.

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(born Aug. 3, 1808, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died Sept. 6, 1893, New York City) U.S. secretary of state (1869–77). He served New York state as lieutenant governor (1847–48), governor (1849–50), and U.S. senator (1851–57). As secretary of state in the administration of Pres. Ulysses S. Grant, he helped draft the Treaty of Washington (1871), which provided for international arbitration of the dispute with Britain over the Alabama claims; he also obtained an agreement with Spain regarding its seizure of the U.S. ship Virginius. As a respected member of Grant's cabinet, he worked to counter graft, improper appointments, and violations of the civil liberties of African Americans.

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City (pop., 2001: city, 490,268; metro. area, 662,401), southeastern Ontario, Canada. Located on Hamilton Harbour at the western end of Lake Ontario, it was settled by British loyalists fleeing the American Revolution. The opening of the Burlington Canal (1830), linking the harbour to Lake Ontario, led to the city's development as an important port and rail centre. It is now one of Canada's leading industrial centres and a financial hub and the site of McMaster University. The centre of an extensive fruit-growing district, it is the site of one of Canada's largest open-air markets.

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(born Jan. 28, 1784, Edinburgh, Scot.—died Dec. 14, 1860, London, Eng.) British foreign secretary and prime minister (1852–55). As special ambassador to Austria in 1813, he helped form the coalition that defeated Napoleon. As foreign secretary (1828–30, 1841–46), he settled boundary disputes between Canada and the U.S. with the Webster-Ashburton Treaty and the Oregon Treaty (see Oregon Question). As prime minister, he formed a coalition government, but his indecision hampered peacekeeping efforts and led to Britain's involvement in the Crimean War. Constitutionally responsible for the mistakes of British generals in the war, he resigned in 1855.

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orig. James Fletcher Henderson

(born Dec. 18, 1898, Cuthbert, Ga., U.S.—died Dec. 29, 1952, New York, N.Y.) U.S. pianist, arranger, and leader of one of the most influential big bands in jazz. Henderson formed a dance band in New York in 1923. The band soon distinguished itself in two ways: the engagement of Louis Armstrong as principal soloist placed greater emphasis on swinging improvisation and the arrangements by Henderson and Don Redman (1900–64) codified the roles of the sections within the ensemble to replace the collective improvisation of early jazz groups. Nearly all big bands subsequently followed their example. A poor businessman, he was forced to dissolve his band several times, but his arrangements played a key role in the success of Benny Goodman in the late 1930s and provided a template for much of the music of the swing era.

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(born Aug. 3, 1808, New York, N.Y., U.S.—died Sept. 6, 1893, New York City) U.S. secretary of state (1869–77). He served New York state as lieutenant governor (1847–48), governor (1849–50), and U.S. senator (1851–57). As secretary of state in the administration of Pres. Ulysses S. Grant, he helped draft the Treaty of Washington (1871), which provided for international arbitration of the dispute with Britain over the Alabama claims; he also obtained an agreement with Spain regarding its seizure of the U.S. ship Virginius. As a respected member of Grant's cabinet, he worked to counter graft, improper appointments, and violations of the civil liberties of African Americans.

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(born Feb. 11, 1812, Wilkes county, Ga., U.S.—died March 4, 1883, Atlanta, Ga.) U.S. politician. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1843–59), where he defended slavery but opposed dissolution of the Union. When Georgia seceded, he was elected vice president of the Confederacy. He supported constitutional government, opposed attempts by Jefferson Davis to infringe on individuals' rights, and advocated a program of prisoner exchanges. He led the delegation to the Hampton Roads Conference (1865). After the war he was held in Boston for five months. He served again in the House (1873–82) and as governor of Georgia (1882–83).

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(born Jan. 11, 1755/57, Nevis, British West Indies—died July 12, 1804, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. statesman. He first came to the U.S. in 1772, arriving in New Jersey. In the American Revolution he joined the Continental Army and showed conspicuous bravery at the Battle of Trenton (see Battles of Trenton and Princeton). He served as aide-de-camp to Gen. George Washington (1777–81); fluent in French, he became a liaison with French commanders. After the war he practiced law in New York. At the Continental Congress, he argued for a strong central government. As a delegate to the Annapolis Convention in 1786, he drafted the address that led to the Constitutional Convention. With James Madison and John Jay, he wrote an influential series of essays, later known as the Federalist papers, in defense of the new Constitution and republican government. Appointed the first secretary of the treasury (1789), Hamilton developed fiscal policies designed to strengthen the national government at the expense of the states. His proposal for a Bank of the United States was opposed by Thomas Jefferson but adopted by Congress in 1791. Differences between Hamilton and Jefferson over the powers of the national government and the country's foreign policy led to the rise of political parties; Hamilton became leader of the Federalist Party, and Madison and Jefferson created the Democratic-Republican Party. Hamilton favoured friendship with Britain and influenced Washington to take a neutral stand toward the French Revolution. In 1796 he caused a rift in the Federalist Party by opposing its nomination of John Adams for president. In 1800 he tried to prevent Adams's reelection, circulating a private attack that Aaron Burr, long at odds with Hamilton, obtained and published. When Jefferson and Burr both defeated Adams but received an equal number of electoral votes, Hamilton helped persuade the Federalists in the House of Representatives to choose Jefferson. In 1804 he opposed Burr's candidacy for governor of New York. This affront, coupled with alleged remarks questioning Burr's character, led Burr to challenge Hamilton to a duel, in which Hamilton was mortally wounded.

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(born Jan. 28, 1784, Edinburgh, Scot.—died Dec. 14, 1860, London, Eng.) British foreign secretary and prime minister (1852–55). As special ambassador to Austria in 1813, he helped form the coalition that defeated Napoleon. As foreign secretary (1828–30, 1841–46), he settled boundary disputes between Canada and the U.S. with the Webster-Ashburton Treaty and the Oregon Treaty (see Oregon Question). As prime minister, he formed a coalition government, but his indecision hampered peacekeeping efforts and led to Britain's involvement in the Crimean War. Constitutionally responsible for the mistakes of British generals in the war, he resigned in 1855.

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