Zoellick, Robert Bruce, 1953-, U.S. government official and finance executive, b. Evergreen Park, Ill., grad. Swarthmore College (B.A., 1975), Harvard (J.D., M.P.P. 1981). As an associate of James Baker, Zoellick held a series of posts in the Treasury and State departments and the White House from 1985 to 1993, and was subsequently (1993-97) an executive vice president at the Federal National Mortgage Association. After stints as a professor at the U.S. naval academy, as president of the Center for Strategic and International Studies, and in other posts, he returned to government under President George W. Bush as the U.S. trade representative (2001-5). A long-time advocate of free trade, he negotiated free trade agreements between the United States and a number of nations and represented the United States in World Trade Organization talks, but was unsuccessful in promoting a Free Trade Area of the Americas. In 2005-6 he was deputy secretary of state, then left government to serve (2006-7) as vice chairman, international, at the Goldman Sachs Group. Zoellick was appointed president of the World Bank (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) in 2007, succeeding Paul Wolfowitz, who stepped down after a troubled tenure.

Springsteen, Bruce Frederick, 1949-, American singer, guitarist, and songwriter, nicknamed "The Boss," b. Long Branch, N.J. Springsteen established himself as a singer and songwriter, as well as a stage showman, while playing in bands in cities along the shore of the NE United States during the late 1960s and early 70s. Backed by the E Street Band, he achieved success and lasting popularity with his 1975 record Born to Run. His songs, which have frequently drawn their inspiration from small towns and the Midwestern industrial heartland, often expound working-class themes and explore the effects of a decaying American dream. His other recordings include The River (1980), the solo Nebraska (1982), and the enormously successful Born in the USA (1984). Springsteen displayed a more austere, less hard-edged style in such albums as Tunnel of Love (1987) and The Ghost of Tom Joad (1995). Once again backed up by the E Street Band, he returned to somber, emotionally compelling rock in his World Trade Center disaster-themed The Rising (2002) and later mixed a fluid, muscular rock with strongly melodic cuts in Magic (2007).

Sabin, Albert Bruce, 1906-93, American physician and microbiologist, b. Bialystock, Russia, grad. New York Univ. (B.S., 1928; M.D., 1931). He emigrated to the United States in 1921 and was naturalized in 1930. He conducted medical research for several organizations before joining (1939) the faculty at the Univ. of Cincinnati college of medicine; there he became (1946) professor of research pediatrics. He conducted research on viral and other infectious diseases and developed (c.1959) a live-virus vaccine for immunization against poliomyelitis. The Sabin vaccine may be taken orally and provides longer immunity than the killed-virus vaccine. Also, the killed-virus vaccine protects only against paralysis, whereas the live vaccine guards against both paralysis and infection.

Rogers, Bruce, 1870-1957, American typographer and book designer, b. Lafayette, Ind. As printing adviser to Cambridge Univ. Press, Harvard Univ. Press, and to commercial houses specializing in limited editions and fine printing, he earned a reputation as his era's leading American book designer. Influenced by Nicolas Jenson's types, he designed the Centaur typeface and the format of the Oxford Lectern Bible (1935). Rogers also wrote Paragraphs on Printing (1943) and Pi (1953), a collection of letters, papers, and addresses.

Robert the Bruce: see Robert I, king of Scotland.

Nauman, Bruce, 1941-, American artist, b. Fort Wayne, Ind.; studied Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison (B.A., 1964), Univ. of California, Davis (M.F.A., 1966). One of the most innovative and influential contemporary American artists, he has worked in many media, including sculpture (fiberglass, neon, rubber, and other materials), drawing, photography, video, film, holograms, prints, performance, and installations. Highly conceptual and concerned with the process of making art, Nauman displays a witty, irreverant, and frequently ironic sensibility in work that varies from casts of his own body, e.g., From Hand to Mouth (1967, Hirshhorn Mus., Washington, D.C.) to flashing neon signs that frequently pun, employ homonyms, and otherwise play with language, e.g., None Sing (1970, Guggenheim Mus.), and a variety of videotape installations, e.g., Clown Torture (1987, Art Inst. of Chicago) and Mapping the Studio I (Fat Chance John Cage) (2001).

Merrifield, Robert Bruce, 1921-2006, American chemist, b. Fort Worth, Tex., Ph.D. Univ. of California at Los Angeles, 1949. As a researcher at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research (later Rockefeller Univ.), with which he was associated until his death, Merrifield developed a comparatively simple method for synthesizing polypeptides. The innovation, which won Merrifield the 1984 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, greatly facilitated the manufacture of insulin, interferon, and other drugs.

Gordon, Bruce S., 1946-, African-American business executive and civil-rights leader, b. Camden, N.J.; grad. Gettysburg College (B.A., 1968), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M.S., 1988). Gordon entered the telecommunications industry as a management trainee with Bell of Pennsylvania in 1968 and retired from the business in 2003 as a senior executive with Verizon. In 2005 he was appointed president and chief executive officer of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The first business executive to head the organization, he pledged to press for greater economic equality for African Americans, but differences with the NAACP's board over the role the organization should play led Gordon to resign in 2007.

Elgin, Thomas Bruce, 7th earl of, 1766-1841, British diplomat. He served on diplomatic missions to Vienna, Brussels, Berlin, and Constantinople. While in Constantinople (1799-1803), he arranged for the so-called Elgin Marbles to be brought to England. He was succeeded by his son James Bruce, who became the 8th earl.

Elgin, James Bruce, 8th earl of, 1811-63, British statesman, son of the 7th earl. He served as governor of Jamaica (1842-46) and in 1847 was appointed governor-general of Canada. There he put into operation the proposals for responsible government outlined by his father-in-law, the earl of Durham. Elgin improved education and helped the Canadian economy, which was depressed by the new British policy of free trade. After personally negotiating the reciprocity treaty of 1854 with the United States, he returned to England. He later negotiated (1857-60) British trade agreements with China and Japan. Shortly before his death he was appointed governor-general of India.

His son, Victor Alexander Bruce, 9th earl of Elgin, 1849-1917, was viceroy of India (1894-99) during an extremely troubled period in that country's history and served as colonial secretary from 1905 to 1908.

Cotton, Sir Robert Bruce, 1571-1631, English antiquarian. The Cottonian collection of books, manuscripts, coins, and antiquities became a part of the British Museum when it was founded in 1753. Cotton collected especially Hebrew and Greek manuscripts and Anglo-Saxon charters. An unprinted classified catalog of the collection is in the Harleian MSS of the British Museum. Cotton was an antiroyalist parliamentarian whose opinions brought him two terms in prison. His magnificent library was sealed in 1630 and remained so until after his death.

Cortelyou, George Bruce, 1862-1940, American public official and business executive, b. New York City. He taught school, and after learning stenography, he became secretary to several New York City and federal officials. Appointed (1895) stenographer to President Cleveland, Cortelyou became secretary to Presidents McKinley (1900) and Theodore Roosevelt (1901). He also served under Roosevelt as Secretary of Commerce and Labor (1903-4), Postmaster General (1905-7), and Secretary of the Treasury (1907-9). He then left government service and became prominent as an executive of public-utility companies.

Catton, Bruce, 1899-1978, American historian, b. Petoskey, Mich. He studied at Oberlin College and then entered upon a varied career as a journalist (1926-42) and public official (1942-52). His service with the War Production Board during World War II led to his first major book, The War Lords of Washington (1948). After 1952 he devoted himself to full-time literary work, serving as an editor from 1954 (senior editor, 1959) of the American Heritage magazine. In 1954 he received the Pulitzer Prize for his historical work, A Stillness at Appomattox (1953). Catton has written extensively on the military history of the Civil War; his many works include Mr. Lincoln's Army (1951), Glory Road (1952), This Hallowed Ground (1956), Grant Moves South (1960), Grant Takes Command (1969), The Centennial History of the Civil War (3 vol., 1961-65), and Prefaces to History (1970).

Bruce, William Speirs, 1867-1921, Scottish explorer and authority on the polar regions. He first went to the Antarctic as ship's surgeon in 1892 and later did survey work in Franz Josef Land and oceanographic work in the Arctic Ocean. He led (1902-4) the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition in the Scotia, performing much valuable scientific research in the Weddell Sea and discovering Coats Land. Bruce established a meteorological station on Laurie Island (in the South Orkney group). He edited the reports of the expedition (6 vol.) and wrote Polar Exploration (1911). Bruce made a number of voyages to Spitsbergen and became an authority on the islands.

Bruce, Victor Alexander, 9th earl of Elgin: see under Elgin, James Bruce, 8th earl of.

Bruce, Thomas, 7th earl of Elgin: see Elgin, Thomas Bruce, 7th earl of.

Bruce, Stanley Melbourne, 1883-1967, Australian political leader. Educated at Cambridge, he was called to the bar (1906) in England. After service in World War I, he entered the commonwealth legislature in 1918, was treasurer (1921-23) in the cabinet of W. M. Hughes, and served (1923-29) as prime minister. He was notable for promoting the closest relations of Australia with the empire compatible with Australian self-government, and he also advocated international cooperation. Bruce served as Australian delegate to the League of Nations and in 1936 was president of the council. From 1933 to 1945 he was high commissioner for Australia in London. In 1947 he was made Viscount Bruce of Melbourne.

Bruce, Lenny, 1925-66, American comedian, b. Long Island, N.Y., as Leonard Alfred Schneider. Possessed of a cynical, surreal, and intensely comic view of the world, Bruce brutally satirized such sensitive areas of American life as sex, religion, and race relations. His comedy left no group unscathed, and his routines were replete with four-letter words. Consequently, Bruce was at various times arrested and forbidden to perform; in 1964 he was convicted of obscenity charges stemming from a New York City performance. He was also arrested for narcotics violations. In Aug., 1966, he died of an overdose of narcotics at the age of 41. After his death Bruce became a cult figure, considered by many to be a martyr to the cause of free speech. His autobiography, How to Talk Dirty and Influence People (1965), sold well, and his nightclub routines were collected and published as The Essential Lenny Bruce (1966). Lenny, a musical based on his life and including much of his comic material, was a hit on Broadway in 1971. After his cult popularity had diminished, he was still regarded as a seminal figure in American culture, whose influence could be seen in the work of important novelists, playwrights, and filmmakers of the 1970s. In 2003, Bruce was posthumously pardoned of his obscenity conviction by the governor of New York.

Bruce, James, 8th earl of Elgin: see Elgin, James Bruce, 8th earl of.

Bruce, James, 1730-94, Scottish explorer in Africa. He explored Roman ruins in N Africa (1755) from Tunis to Tripoli and visited Crete, Rhodes, and Asia Minor. In 1768 he traveled down the Red Sea as far as the straits of Bab el Mandeb. From Massawa he struck inland for Gondar, then the capital of Ethiopia. He rediscovered (1770) the source of the Blue Nile, which he followed (1771) to its confluence with the White Nile. He wrote Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, 1768-73 (3d ed. 1813). For his travels in Barbary, see R. L. Playfair, Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce (1877).

Bruce, Edward, d. 1318, Scottish king of Ireland, brother of Robert I of Scotland. He aided his brother in the war for independence from England and in 1315 was declared heir to Robert's throne. With Robert's approval he then invaded Ulster, to which he had some hereditary claim. He was crowned king of Ireland in 1316 and found many Irish allies against the Anglo-Irish rulers. However, he failed to consolidate his gains and was killed in battle in 1318.

Bruce of Melbourne, Stanley Melbourne Bruce, Viscount: see Bruce, Stanley Melbourne.

Bruce, Scottish royal family descended from an 11th-century Norman duke, Robert de Brus. He aided William I in his conquest of England (1066) and was given lands in England. His son was granted fiefs in Scotland, and the family therefore rendered homage in both kingdoms. The 5th Robert the Bruce was married to Isobel, second daughter of David, earl of Huntingdon, brother of the Scottish kings Malcolm IV and William the Lion. The son of that marriage, the 6th Robert the Bruce, was a claimant to the Scottish throne after the death of Margaret Maid of Norway in 1290. The crown, however, was awarded by Edward I to John de Baliol, grandson of the eldest daughter of David of Huntingdon. A grandson of this Robert was the famous Robert Bruce or Robert the Bruce who became king of Scotland as Robert I. The brother of Robert I, Edward Bruce, was crowned ineffectually king of Ireland in 1316. The young son of Robert I succeeded his father as David II and was in turn succeeded by his nephew, Robert II, son of Robert I's daughter Marjory and the first king of Scotland of the Stuart family.

Beresford, Bruce, 1940-, Australian film director, b. Sydney, grad. Sydney Univ. (1962). Beresford moved to England, worked for the British Film Institute (1966-71), and made several modest films. Returning home in 1971, he became known as one of Australia's "new wave" directors, excelling particularly at intimate period dramas. His first popular success was the darkly humorous Don's Party (1975). He scored his first real hit with the intense Breaker Morant (1979), based on a Boer War incident. In the early 1980s, Beresford moved to the United States, where he won considerable praise with the subtle, Texas-set Tender Mercies (1982). His greatest success was the Academy Award-winning Driving Miss Daisy (1989), a moving tale of friendship between a wealthy Southern widow and her African-American chauffeur. His other films include The Getting of Wisdom (1977), Crimes of the Heart (1986), Black Robe (1991), Paradise Road (1997), and Bride of the Wind (2001). He is also a screenwriter and producer, and has directed a number of opera productions.

Bairnsfather, Bruce, 1888-1959, English illustrator and author, b. India. He served with the British forces in World War I and created the cartoon character "Old Bill" to typify the spirit of the British infantryman. During World War II, Bairnsfather was cartoonist with the U.S. forces in Europe. His works include Fragments from France (1916), Bullets and Billets (1917), and Jeeps and Jests (1943).

(born Aug. 26, 1906, Białystok, Poland, Russian Empire—died March 3, 1993, Washington, D.C., U.S.) Polish-born U.S. physician and microbiologist. He immigrated to the U.S. with his parents in 1921 and received an M.D. from New York University. He grew poliovirus in human nerve tissue outside the body, showed that it does not enter the body through the respiratory system, and proved that poliomyelitis is primarily an infection of the digestive tract. He postulated that an oral vaccine would work longer than Jonas Salk's injections of killed virus, and he isolated weakened strains of each of the three types of poliovirus that would stimulate antibody production but not produce disease. The Sabin oral polio vaccine, approved for use in the U.S. in 1960, became the main defense against polio throughout the world.

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known as Robert the Bruce

(born July 11, 1274—died June 7, 1329, Cardross, Dumbartonshire, Scot.) King of Scotland (1306–29). Though Robert was of Anglo-Norman ancestry and held lands in both England and Scotland, he sided with the Scots against England and supported the rebel William Wallace. He gained the Scottish throne in 1306 after stabbing a rival to death in a quarrel. Twice defeated by Edward I (1306), he became a fugitive, hiding on a remote island off the Irish coast. Within a year, Robert returned to Scotland and began gathering supporters, and in 1314 he defeated Edward II at the Battle of Bannockburn. Edward III finally recognized him and confirmed Scottish independence in 1328.

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(born July 20, 1811, London, Eng.—died Nov. 20, 1863, Dharmshala, India) British governor-general of Canada. He was appointed governor of Jamaica in 1842. As governor of British North America (1847–54), he implemented the policy of responsible, or cabinet, government recommended by Lord Durham. Elgin supported the Rebellion Losses Act (1849), which compensated Canadians for losses during the 1837 rebellion in Lower Canada, a stand criticized by Tory opponents in England and French-Canadian rioters in Montreal. He negotiated the Reciprocity Treaty (1854) between the Canadian colonies and the U.S. In 1857 he left Canada to serve in diplomatic posts in China, Japan, and India.

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(born July 20, 1811, London, Eng.—died Nov. 20, 1863, Dharmshala, India) British governor-general of Canada. He was appointed governor of Jamaica in 1842. As governor of British North America (1847–54), he implemented the policy of responsible, or cabinet, government recommended by Lord Durham. Elgin supported the Rebellion Losses Act (1849), which compensated Canadians for losses during the 1837 rebellion in Lower Canada, a stand criticized by Tory opponents in England and French-Canadian rioters in Montreal. He negotiated the Reciprocity Treaty (1854) between the Canadian colonies and the U.S. In 1857 he left Canada to serve in diplomatic posts in China, Japan, and India.

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(born Aug. 26, 1906, Białystok, Poland, Russian Empire—died March 3, 1993, Washington, D.C., U.S.) Polish-born U.S. physician and microbiologist. He immigrated to the U.S. with his parents in 1921 and received an M.D. from New York University. He grew poliovirus in human nerve tissue outside the body, showed that it does not enter the body through the respiratory system, and proved that poliomyelitis is primarily an infection of the digestive tract. He postulated that an oral vaccine would work longer than Jonas Salk's injections of killed virus, and he isolated weakened strains of each of the three types of poliovirus that would stimulate antibody production but not produce disease. The Sabin oral polio vaccine, approved for use in the U.S. in 1960, became the main defense against polio throughout the world.

Learn more about Sabin, Albert B(ruce) with a free trial on Britannica.com.