Young, Charles Augustus, 1834-1908, American astronomer, b. Hanover, N.H., grad. Dartmouth, 1853. He discovered the reversing layer of the solar atmosphere and proved the gaseous nature of the sun's corona. He was a pioneer in the study of the spectrum of the sun and experimented in photographing solar prominences in full sunlight. He was professor (1857-66) of astronomy, natural philosophy, and mathematics at Western Reserve College (now Case Western Reserve Univ.), professor of astronomy and natural philosophy at Dartmouth College (1866-77), and professor of astronomy at Princeton (1877-1905). His works include The Sun (1881, rev. ed. 1896), Lessons in Astronomy (1891, rev. ed. 1918), and The Elements of Astronomy (1890, rev. ed. 1919).

York, Frederick Augustus, duke of, 1763-1827, second son of George III of England. In the French Revolutionary Wars he commanded (1793-95) the unsuccessful English forces in Flanders. Despite his incompetence in the field, he became a field marshal (1795) and commander in chief of the army (1798) and set about reforming army abuses at home. He led another disastrous expedition to the Netherlands in 1799. He resigned his command in 1809 after he was accused of selling army commissions through his mistress, Mary Anne Clarke. He was cleared and reappointed in 1811.

Swanson, Claude Augustus, 1862-1939, American politician, b. Pittsylvania co., Va. He practiced law in Chatham, Va., and after serving (1893-1905) in the U.S. House of Representatives he was (1906-10) governor of Virginia. In the U.S. Senate (1910-33), Swanson became recognized as one of the foremost authorities on naval and foreign affairs in the United States; he was a delegate to the London Naval Conference in 1931 and the Geneva Disarmament Conference in 1932. As U.S. Secretary of the Navy (1933-39), Swanson directed a vast naval expansion program.

Sutter, John Augustus, 1803-80, American pioneer, b. Kandern, Baden, of Swiss parents. His original name was Johann August Suter. He emigrated to the United States in 1834, went to St. Louis, then to Santa Fe. Fired with a desire to go to the Pacific coast, he went to the Oregon country and entered the coast trade in the Northwest, going to the Hawaiian Islands, to Sitka, Alaska, and finally (1839) to California. He settled in the Sacramento valley and obtained large grants of land from the Mexican governor of California. There he established his colony, known as New Helvetia, and built Sutter's Fort (see Sacramento). Rich and powerful, Sutter helped many newcomers to California. In 1848, James W. Marshall found gold while building a sawmill on Sutter's land. The news spread, and gold-mad crowds poured across the continent in the rush of 1849. They killed Sutter's cattle and swarmed over his lands hunting for gold. He struggled against them in vain, and moved E to Pennsylvania, a ruined man, in 1873. He had earlier been granted a pension from California, and to the end he hoped that the U.S. Congress would reimburse him for his losses.

Sigismund Augustus: see Sigismund II.

Selwyn, George Augustus, 1809-78, English prelate. In 1841 he was appointed to the colonial diocese of New Zealand, becoming the first Anglican bishop of the island. Having prepared himself on the voyage by studying navigation and the Maori language, he visited many of the South Sea islands during his 26-year episcopate by sailing his own vessel. He set up a synodical church government in New Zealand and was a pioneer in encouraging the growth of a native ministry. Returning to England, Selwyn became (1868) bishop of Lichfield. In 1882, Selwyn College, Cambridge, a tribute to his memory financed through popular subscription, was incorporated.

Saint-Gaudens, Augustus, 1848-1907, American sculptor, b. Dublin, Ireland. An apprentice in cameo cutting, he gained mastery over sculpture in low relief. He had an unusual genius for plastic expression and an unfailing enthusiasm and industry. He was trained at the École des Beaux-Arts, Paris, and gained knowledge of the Italian Renaissance from his stay (1870-73) in Italy. Saint-Gaudens became the foremost sculptor in the United States and a strong influence in the development of American sculpture. In 1881 his statue of Admiral Farragut for Madison Square, New York City, set a new standard for public monuments. Stanford White collaborated on the pedestal for this figure and several others. In 1887 the figure of Lincoln in Lincoln Park, Chicago, was completed. Other works that followed are Deacon Samuel Chapin (The Puritan), Springfield, Mass.; the Shaw Memorial, Boston Common; General Logan, Chicago; General Sherman, entrance to Central Park, New York City; and the seated Lincoln for the Chicago lake front. Of the portrait tablets and plaques, most notable are Dr. McCosh, Princeton, N.J.; Robert Louis Stevenson for St. Giles, Edinburgh, Scotland; and charming low reliefs of children. Among ideal figures is the Adams Memorial, Rock Creek Cemetery, Washington, D.C., one of his most splendid works.

Rowland, Henry Augustus, 1848-1901, American physicist, b. Honesdale, Pa., grad. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1870. He was professor of physics at Johns Hopkins from 1875. Rowland is known especially for his invention of a dividing engine for ruling diffraction gratings on curved surfaces and for accurately determining the value of the ohm and the mechanical equivalent of heat. He also did important work in the field of electrical power.

Roebling, John Augustus, 1806-69, German-American engineer, b. Mulhouse. He studied engineering in Berlin and in 1831 came to the United States. He demonstrated the practicability of steel cable and established a plant for manufacturing it at Trenton, N.J. A pioneer in the building of suspension bridges, he built the Allegheny Suspension Bridge (completed 1845) at Pittsburgh, the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge (completed 1855), and the Cincinnati and Covington Bridge over the Ohio (completed 1867). His most ambitious project was the Brooklyn Bridge. It was scarcely begun when Roebling, directing operations, was injured in an accident and died a few days later.

His son Washington Augustus Roebling, 1837-1926, b. Saxonburg, Pa., grad. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1857, had aided his father in building the Allegheny Suspension Bridge. During the Civil War he joined the Union army as a private, was transferred to Irvin McDowell's engineering staff, and rose to the rank of colonel. He went to Europe to study engineering and especially pneumatic caissons. After his father's death he directed the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge. Because of continuous underground work he was stricken (1872) with decompression sickness (caisson disease), but despite his invalidism he directed the project until the bridge was opened to traffic (1883). In 1888 he took over the management of the Roebling plant in Trenton.

Pugin, Augustus Charles, 1762-1832, English writer on medieval architecture, b. France. His writings and drawings furnished a mass of working material for the architects of the Gothic revival. Among them is Specimens of Gothic Architecture (2 vol., 1821-23). In some of his publications he was assisted by his son, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin, 1812-52, English architect and writer, noted for his prominent role in the Gothic revival. Although he erected numerous buildings, including churches, monasteries, and convents, his writings exerted greater influence than his architecture, and his works Contrasts (1836) and The True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture (1841) might be termed the textbooks of the Gothic revival. His other publications include Gothic Furniture in the Style of the 15th Century (1835) and Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornament and Costume (1844). He worked under Sir Charles Barry on the Houses of Parliament, chiefly in the execution of fittings and ornamental details. The cathedral in St. George's Fields, London, is an example of his executed work, which included over 65 churches.

Poniatowski, Stanislaus Augustus: see Stanislaus II.

Philip Augustus: see Philip II, king of France.

Nicholson, James William Augustus, 1821-87, American naval officer, b. Dedham, Mass.; grandson of Samuel Nicholson. He was appointed a midshipman in 1838, served under Commodore Perry in East Asia (1853), and took part in the attempt to relieve Fort Sumter (1861) that precipitated the Civil War. During the war he commanded ships in the successful Union assaults on Port Royal, S.C., Jacksonville, and other Florida coastal cities and on Mobile Bay.

Möbius, Augustus Ferdinand,(1790-1868), German mathematician and astronomer, b. Schulpforta, Saxony. A professor of astronomy at the Univ. of Leipzig, he made important contributions to theoretical astronomy with his publications The Principles of Astronomy (1836) and The Elements of Celestial Mechanics (1843). Möbius also focused on analytical geometry and was a pioneer in topology. He is best known, however, for his invention of the Möbius strip—a flat, rectangular strip with a half-twist and ends connected to form a continuous-sided, single-edged loop (see topology)—and the Möbius net, an important configuration in projective geometry.

Murray, Sir James Augustus Henry, 1837-1915, English lexicographer. In 1879 he assumed the editorship of the New English Dictionary (the Oxford English Dictionary), which was his life's work (see dictionary). Murray was a guiding force in this compilation, a triumph of modern scholarship, and its general plan and much of the work on details are to be credited to him.

Muhlenberg, William Augustus, 1796-1877, American Episcopal clergyman, hymn writer, and philanthropist, b. Philadelphia. He was a great-grandson of Heinrich Melchior Mühlenberg. Baptized in the Lutheran communion, he joined the Episcopal Church, in which he was ordained priest in 1820. In 1846, after pastorates in Lancaster, Pa., and Flushing, N.Y., he became rector of the Church of the Holy Communion, New York City. Muhlenberg helped found (1858) St. Luke's Hospital, of which he was first pastor and superintendent. He also founded St. Johnland, an industrial Christian settlement on Long Island. He was an influential leader in movements advancing Christian brotherhood and the unity of evangelical bodies throughout the world. Among his best-known hymns are I Would Not Live Alway and Saviour, Who Thy Flock Art Feeding.

Menninger, Karl Augustus, 1893-1990, and William Claire Menninger, 1899-1966, American psychiatrists, brothers, b. Topeka, Kans. The Menninger Clinic, conceived with the idea of collecting many specialists in one center, was founded in Topeka in 1919 by Karl and his father, Charles Frederick (1862-1953); in 1925 they were joined by William. The Menninger Foundation, established for research, training, and public education in psychiatry, came into existence in 1941 and soon became a U.S. psychiatric and psychoanalytic center. At the close of World War II, Karl Menninger was instrumental in founding the Winter Veterans Administration Hospital, Topeka, which functioned as a mental hospital and as the center of the largest psychiatric training program in the world. In 2003 the clinic, much smaller than in its heyday, moved to the Houston area, where it continues in association with the Baylor College of Medicine and the Methodist Hospital.

Lukeman, Augustus (Henry Augustus Lukeman), 1871-1935, American sculptor, b. Richmond, Va., studied at the National Academy of Design, New York City, and the École des Beaux-Arts, Paris. Among his works are Manu, the Law Giver of India (Appellate Court) and the fountain in memory of Isidore and Ida Straus (both: New York City), and equestrian statues of Francis Asbury (Washington, D.C.) and Kit Carson (Trinidad, Colo.). In 1925 he took over the completion of the colossal sculptures on Stone Mt. in Georgia, started by Gutzon Borglum.

Lindbergh, Charles Augustus, 1859-1924, American Congressman (1907-17), b. Sweden; father of American aviator Charles Augustus Lindbergh. He was brought to Minnesota as an infant, and later practiced law in Little Falls, Minn. As a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives, he consistently attacked the methods of large industrial trusts and sponsored various reforms but incurred vilification by his denunciation of war propaganda and war profiteering. His outspoken book Why Is Your Country at War? (1917, repr. 1934) was suppressed and contributed to his defeat (1918) as candidate of the Nonpartisan League for the post of governor of Minnesota.

Lindbergh, Charles Augustus, 1902-74, American aviator who made the first solo, nonstop transatlantic flight, b. Detroit; son of Charles A. Lindbergh (1859-1924). He left the Univ. of Wisconsin (1922) to study flying. After service as a flying cadet, he was commissioned (1925) in the air force reserve and later became an airmail pilot. On May 21, 1927, Lindbergh astounded the world by landing in Paris after a solo flight from New York across the Atlantic in The Spirit of St. Louis. Upon his return to the United States he received an unprecedented welcome, was promoted to colonel, and made a nationwide tour to foster popular interest in aviation.

Lindbergh married (1929) Anne Morrow (see below), the daughter of the U.S. ambassador to Mexico Dwight W. Morrow, and with her made several long flights. After the kidnapping and death of their son (see Hauptmann, Bruno Richard) in 1932, the Lindberghs moved (1935) to England. In 1936, Lindbergh collaborated with Alexis Carrel on the invention of a perfusion pump that could maintain organs outside the body.

After inspecting (1938) European air forces, Lindbergh became convinced of German air superiority; he favored a U.S. policy of isolationism with respect to the struggle threatening in Europe. He returned (1939) to the United States and made antiwar speeches for the America First Committee. When these were branded pro-Nazi, he resigned his reserve commission and quit the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. Upon U.S. entry into the war Lindbergh offered his services to the air force; he subsequently flew combat missions in the Pacific. In his later years he emerged as a spokesman on conservation issues.

His wife, Anne Spencer Morrow Lindbergh, 1906-2001, b. Englewood, N.J., grad. Smith College, 1927, was a writer and aviator. Her more than two dozen works include North to the Orient (1935) and Listen! the Wind (1938), both accounts of flights she made with her husband; The Wave of the Future (1940), a tract advocating isolationism; Gift from the Sea (1955), a poetic, highly personal, and bestselling study of the problems of women; The Unicorn and Other Poems (1956); a novel, Dearly Beloved (1962); and a volume of essays, Earth Shine (1969).

Kent, Edward Augustus, duke of, 1767-1820, fourth son of George III of Great Britain and father of Queen Victoria. Most of his mature life was spent in military service at Gibraltar, in Canada, and in the West Indies. He was married (1818) to Victoria Mary Louise of Saxe-Coburg.

John, Augustus Edwin, 1879-1961, British painter and etcher, b. Wales. John studied at the Slade School, London. A leading portrait painter, he had many important sitters, among them Queen Elizabeth (the Queen Mother), Lloyd George, G. B. Shaw, T. E. Lawrence, Sean O'Casey, and Dylan Thomas. His portraits show vigorous characterization without flattery. His celebrated Smiling Woman is a portrait of his wife (1910; Tate Gall., London). John's etchings include several self-portraits as well as portraits of W. B. Yeats, Jacob Epstein, and James Joyce. John's sister Gwen John, 1876-1939, was a student of Whistler and a painter in the Pre-Raphaelite manner.

Hobart, Garret Augustus, 1844-99, Vice President of the United States (1897-99), b. Long Branch, N.J. A lawyer and businessman, he was prominent in New Jersey Republican politics for many years. Elected Vice President on the ticket with McKinley, he died in office.

Heinze, Frederick Augustus, 1869-1914, American copper magnate, b. Brooklyn, N.Y. He went in 1889 to Butte, Mont., as engineer for a mining company. In 1893 he organized the Montana Ore Purchasing Company and challenged the claims of the Amalgamated Copper Company, which was controlled by Standard Oil. Brilliant and aggressive, Heinze won sympathy as a knight pitted against the "interests," but he was unsuccessful. In 1906 he sold most of his holdings, and the United Copper Company, which he founded, went down in the Panic of 1907.

Grafton, Augustus Henry Fitzroy, 3d duke of, 1735-1811, British statesman. After serving as a secretary of state (1765-66), he became first lord of the treasury in Lord Chatham's administration (1766-68) and, because of Chatham's illness, effective chief minister. He officially became chief minister in 1768. His handling of the John Wilkes affair and the growing crisis in the American colonies led to the break-up of his ministry, and he resigned in 1770. He was lord privy seal under Lord North (1771-75) and under lords Rockingham (1782) and Shelburne (1782-83).

Garland, Augustus Hill, 1832-99, American lawyer and politician, b. Tipton co., Tenn. He became a prominent lawyer in Arkansas and during the Civil War served in the Confederate House of Representatives (1861-64) and Senate (1864-65). After the war, he was pardoned by President Andrew Johnson. He could not practice law, however, because of a congressional act of Jan., 1865, that debarred former members of the Confederate government. This led to Ex parte Garland (1867), a Supreme Court case in which Garland successfully pleaded that since the act was an ex post facto law it was unconstitutional. He was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1867 but was refused his seat. As governor of Arkansas (1874-76), Garland was influential in restoring the soundness of the state's finances. He served in the U.S. Senate from 1877 to 1885 and as Attorney General from 1885 to 1889. He wrote Experiences in the Supreme Court of the United States (1898) and, with Robert Ralston, A Treatise on the Constitution and Jurisdiction of the United States Courts (1898).

Garfield, Harry Augustus, 1863-1942, American educator, b. Hiram, Ohio, grad. Williams 1885, studied law at Columbia; son of President James A. Garfield. From 1888 to 1903 he practiced law in Cleveland, Ohio, where he was active in civic affairs and also taught law at Western Reserve Univ. He was professor of politics at Princeton from 1903 to 1908 and president of Williams from 1908 until his retirement in 1934. He served as U.S. fuel administrator in 1917-19 and in 1921 founded the Institute of Politics at Williams.

Frederick Augustus II, elector of Saxony: see Augustus III, king of Poland.

Frederick Augustus I, 1750-1827, king (1806-27) and elector (1763-1806) of Saxony, grand duke of Warsaw (1807-14). He sided with the allies in the French Revolutionary Wars and joined Prussia in the campaign of 1806 against the French emperor Napoleon I. However, after the French victory at Jena he made a separate peace with Napoleon, with whose approval he took the title king of Saxony. Napoleon also made him nominal ruler of the grand duchy of Warsaw. Frederick Augustus did not abandon his alliance with Napoleon in time and as a result lost a large part of Saxony to Prussia at the Congress of Vienna (1815).

Frederick Augustus I, elector of Saxony: see Augustus II, king of Poland.

Foote, Samuel Augustus: see Foot, Samuel Augustus.

Foot, Samuel Augustus, 1780-1846, American politician, b. Cheshire, Conn. He served as a Democratic Republican in the Connecticut legislature (1817-18, 1821-23, 1825-26) and in the U.S. House of Representatives (1819-21, 1823-25) before he was U.S. Senator (1827-33). In the Senate he became prominent by offering (1829) the Foot Resolution. He was again (1833) elected—this time a Whig—to the House of Representatives, but he resigned to become governor of Connecticut. His name appears sometimes as Foote.

Ernest Augustus, 1771-1851, king of Hanover (1837-51) and duke of Cumberland, fifth son of George III of England. At the accession of his niece Queen Victoria, the crowns of England and Hanover were separated, since succession in Hanover was only through the male line. Ernest Augustus had been associated with the reactionary Tories in England, and his reign in Hanover was ultraconservative. He rescinded the liberal constitution of 1833 and evoked the famous protest of seven Göttingen professors. The revolutionary outbreaks of 1848 forced him to allow revision of his constitution of 1840, but he returned to reactionary policies that were continued by his successor and son, George V.

Elliott, George Augustus: see Eliott, George Augustus, 1st Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar.

Eliott, George Augustus, 1st Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar, 1717-90, British general. Appointed (1775) governor of Gibraltar, he was forced to defend it against a combined Spanish and French siege that lasted three and a half years (1779-83). For this memorable defense he was raised to the peerage in 1787. His name also appears as Elliott.

Duyckinck, Evert Augustus, 1816-78, American editor and biographer, b. New York City, grad. Columbia, 1835. From 1840 to 1842 he edited Arturus, a Journal of Books and Opinion, and from 1848 to 1853, with his brother George Long Duyckinck (1823-63), he owned and edited the Literary World, the best literary weekly of the period. With his brother he also edited and prepared much of the copy for the Cyclopedia of American Literature (2 vol., 1855), which he revised and enlarged in 1866 and which was a standard work in its time.

De Morgan, Augustus, 1806-71, English mathematician and logician, b. India. A noted teacher, he was professor of mathematics (1828-31, 1836-66) at University College (now part of the Univ. of London) and a founder and first president (1865) of the London Mathematical Society. Known as a reformer of logic, he developed a new logic of relations that he summarized in Syllabus of a Proposed System of Logic (1860). His works include An Essay on Probabilities (1838), Formal Logic (1847), Trigonometry and Double Algebra (1849), and A Budget of Paradoxes (1872).

Cumberland, William Augustus, duke of, 1721-65, British general; third son of George II. Entering the army shortly before the outbreak (1740) of the War of the Austrian Succession, he was defeated by the French at Fontenoy (1745). Returning to England to put down the 1745 rising of the Jacobites, he defeated Prince Charles Edward Stuart at Culloden Moor (1746) and earned the nickname "the Butcher" by his ruthless punishment of the rebels. Once more on the Continent, he averted the fall of Maastricht but was again defeated by the French in 1747. In the Seven Years War he signed (1757) a capitulation to the French (the Convention of Kloster-Zeven) for which he was dismissed.

Charles Augustus, 1757-1828, duke and, after 1815, grand duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach; friend and patron of Goethe, Schiller, and Herder. Though his duchy was small, he was important in German politics. He helped Frederick II of Prussia form (1785) the Fürstenbund [league of princes] to check Austria's attempt under Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II to expand Austrian influence in the empire. He fought in the French Revolutionary Wars and against Napoleon I until 1806, when he was forced to join the Confederation of the Rhine. At the Congress of Vienna after Napoleon's defeat his duchy was enlarged and he was raised to a grand duke. Assisted by Goethe, he made Weimar a center of literature, science, art, and liberal political thought. In 1816 he introduced a constitution.

Brownson, Orestes Augustus, 1803-76, American author and clergyman, b. Stockbridge, Vt. Largely self-taught, he became a vigorous and influential writer on social and religious questions. He was a Presbyterian, but left that church to become first a Universalist and then a sort of free-lance minister, working for such socialistic schemes as the short-lived Workingmen's Party. Later he was a Unitarian minister until in 1836 he started his own church, the Society for Christian Union and Progress. As founder and editor of the Boston Quarterly Review (1838-42) and as editor of the Democratic Review (1842-44), he condemned social inequalities. At this time he was one of the transcendentalists and was so interested in Brook Farm as to send his son there. He entered the Roman Catholic Church in 1844, and later, as editor of the new Brownson's Quarterly Review, he was a vigorous defender of the Church. Among his books are New Views of Christianity, Society, and the Church (1836); two autobiographical novels, Charles Elwood; or, The Infidel Converted (1840) and The Convert (1857); and The American Republic (1865).

Briggs, Charles Augustus, 1841-1913, American clergyman, theologian, and educator, b. New York City, studied at the Univ. of Virginia, Union Theological Seminary, and the Univ. of Berlin. From 1875 until his death he was a member of the faculty of Union Theological Seminary, serving as professor of Hebrew and the cognate languages. In 1890 he was appointed to the chair of biblical theology. The address on the authority of Holy Scripture that he gave at that time caused his trial for heresy (1892) before the New York presbytery. Although acquitted, Dr. Briggs was suspended (1893) from the Presbyterian ministry by the General Assembly; thereupon Union Theological Seminary severed its relations with the Assembly. He later (1900) entered the Episcopal ministry. Among his many books are A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms (2 vol., 1906) and Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (with Francis Brown and S. R. Driver, completed 1906).

Bradford, Augustus Williamson, 1806-81, Civil War governor of Maryland (1862-66), b. Bel Air, Md. As a delegate to the 1861 peace conference in Washington, he strongly pleaded for the Union and became the Union party candidate for governor of Maryland. Elected by a large majority, partially as a result of intimidation at the polls by Union soldiers, Bradford served from 1862 to 1866, assuring federal control of the state. In 1862 and 1863 he appealed for volunteers in a state-equipped local militia that helped turn back Confederate invasions of state territory. Denying that the federal government had the power to free the slaves in Maryland, he called a state convention in 1864 that framed a new constitution abolishing slavery.

Berle, Adolf Augustus, Jr., 1895-1971, American lawyer and public official, b. Boston. Admitted to the bar in 1916, he served in World War I and was a member of the American delegation to the Paris Peace Conference. Resigning in protest against the terms of the Versailles Treaty, Berle returned to practice law in New York City and later became (1927) professor of corporate law at Columbia. As a specialist in corporation law and finance, he was a member of Franklin Delano Roosevelt's Brain Trust and helped shape much of the banking and securities legislation of the New Deal. As Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American affairs (1938-44), Berle attended many inter-American conferences and acted as spokesman for Roosevelt's Good Neighbor Policy. After serving (1945-46) as ambassador to Brazil, he resumed his professorship at Columbia and was a founder and chairman (1952-55) of the Liberal party. In 1961, Berle headed a task force for President John F. Kennedy that recommended the Alliance for Progress. His well-known writings include the classic study The Modern Corporation and Private Property (with G. C. Means, 1933, rev. ed. 1968), The 20th Century Capitalist Revolution (1954), Tides of Crisis (1957), Power without Property (1959), and Power (1969). A selection of his papers was edited by B. B. Berle and T. B. Jacobs (1973).

Barnett, Samuel Augustus, 1844-1913, English clergyman and social worker. As vicar of St. Jude's, Whitechapel, in the slums of London, he pioneered in the social settlement movement. Toynbee Hall, the first settlement house, was opened in 1884 with Barnett as its first warden. He was also active in the university extension movement. His wife, Henrietta Octavia Barnett, 1851-1936, was especially interested in housing and helped found a model garden suburb at Hampstead. She collaborated in some of her husband's books, notably Practicable Socialism (1888) and wrote his biography (1918). In 1924 she became Dame Commander of the British Empire.

Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter, 1809-89, American educator and mathematician, b. Sheffield, Mass., grad. Yale, 1828. After tutoring at Yale and teaching in institutions for the deaf and mute, he joined the faculty of the Univ. of Alabama, serving as professor of mathematics and natural philosophy (1837-48) and as professor of chemistry and natural philosophy (1848-54). From 1854 to 1856 he was professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at the Univ. of Mississippi. He served there as president (1856-58) and chancellor (1858-61), but resigned at the outbreak of the Civil War to return to the North. After a period of research in astronomy and after work as head of the map and chart department of the U.S. Coast Survey, he was selected to succeed Charles King as president of Columbia College (now Columbia Univ.). During his long administration (1864-89), Columbia grew from a small undergraduate college of 150 students into one of the nation's great universities, with an enrollment of 1,500. He was instrumental in expanding the curriculum, adding departments and fostering the development of the School of Mines (founded 1864; now included in the School of Engineering). He extended the elective system and advocated equal educational privileges for men and women. Barnard College, the woman's undergraduate unit of Columbia, was named for him, even though he himself favored coeducation. Barnard was active in founding the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the National Academy of Sciences. He edited Johnson's New Universal Cyclopaedia (1876-78) and wrote many addresses, articles, books, and pamphlets in the fields of mathematics, physics, economics, and education. His annual reports on Columbia, outstanding discussions of the significance of current educational progress, were edited by W. F. Russell in The Rise of a University, Vol. I (1937).

Augustus III, 1696-1763, king of Poland (1735-63) and, as Frederick Augustus II, elector of Saxony (1733-63); son of Augustus II, whom he succeeded in Saxony. Elected king of Poland by a minority, he allied himself with Empress Anna of Russia and Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in the War of the Polish Succession (1733-35) and secured the throne from Stanislaus I. In the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48), Augustus at first offered to support Maria Theresa in return for a corridor between Poland and Saxony. He was refused and entered the coalition against her, claiming rights as a son-in-law of her uncle, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph I. He changed sides in 1742. When the Seven Years War began (1756) with a surprise attack on Saxony, Augustus fled to Poland; he returned to Dresden only after the war was over (1763). He was a patron of the arts, and his indolence and sensuality kept him from state affairs, which he left to his ministers, notably Count Brühl. Augustus's death ended the union of Saxony and Poland. His grandson became elector of Saxony (and later, as Frederick Augustus I, king), but Stanislaus II was elected king of Poland with Russian support.

Augustus II, 1670-1733, king of Poland (1697-1733) and, as Frederick Augustus I, elector of Saxony (1694-1733). He commanded the imperial army against the Turks (1695-96), but had no success and was replaced by Prince Eugene of Savoy as soon as he competed for the Polish throne, left vacant by the death of John III. By becoming a Catholic and granting the Polish nobility unprecedented privileges he was elected king with the support of the Holy Roman emperor and the pope. With help from Patkul, Augustus allied himself (1699) with Peter I of Russia and Frederick IV of Denmark for an attack on young Charles XII of Sweden. In the resulting conflict (see Northern War) Augustus invaded Livonia with his Saxon troops but was defeated (1702) by Charles XII. The Treaty of Altranstädt (1706) forced him to renounce the Polish crown in favor of Stanislaus I and to give up his alliance with Russia. After Charles's defeat by the Russians at Poltava (1709), Augustus revived the alliance and recovered Poland. In Poland, where he kept a Saxon force, Augustus was highly unpopular. After his death, the ascension of his son and successor in Saxony, Augustus III, to the Polish throne was unsuccessfully contested by Stanislaus I, who was backed by France. Among Augustus's many mistresses was Maria Aurora Königsmark; her son, Maurice de Saxe, was one of Augustus's innumerable illegitimate offspring. A patron of the arts, Augustus greatly embellished Dresden and created the Meissen china manufactures. He is also called Augustus the Strong.

Augustus, 63 B.C.-A.D. 14, first Roman emperor, a grandson of the sister of Julius Caesar. Named at first Caius Octavius, he became on adoption by the Julian gens (44 B.C.) Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian); Augustus was a title of honor granted (27 B.C.) by the senate.

The Second Triumvirate

When Octavius was a youth, Caesar took a great interest in his education and made him his heir without the boy's knowledge. Octavius was in Illyricum when Caesar was killed, and he promptly set out for Rome to avenge the dictator's death. Before he reached the city, he heard that he was Caesar's heir. At Rome, Antony was in control, and Octavian was recognized by Cicero and the senate as a leader against him. Antony went north to take Gaul and was defeated (43 B.C.) at Mutina (modern Modena).

Octavian, now dominant in Rome, secured the consulship and made an alliance with Antony and Lepidus (d. 13 B.C.) as the Second Triumvirate. Having proscribed the enemies of the triumvirate, Octavian and Antony went east and defeated (42 B.C.) the army of Marcus Junius Brutus and Caius Cassius Longinus at Philippi. Octavian's forces then attacked Sextus Pompeius, who controlled Sicily and Sardinia, and Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa defeated (36 B.C.) Pompeius at Mylae.

Emperor

Consolidation of Power

While his enemies were being defeated abroad, Octavian also had been consolidating his power in Rome. He was helped by the growing impatience of Rome with Antony's intrigue with Cleopatra, and he had himself appointed (31 B.C.) general against Antony. After the naval battle off Actium, which Agrippa won over Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian controlled all Roman territories. Although he began to reform the city and the provinces, he never returned control of the state back to the people.

He did, however, give the impression that Rome had gone from a military dictatorship to constitutional rule. He established no court, and he considered himself, at least publicly, not the ruler, but rather the first citizen of the republic. The senate delighted to honor him: in 29 B.C. he was made imperator [Lat.,=commander; from it is derived emperor], in 28 B.C. princeps [leader; from it is derived prince], in 27 B.C. augustus [august, reverend], in 12 B.C. pontifex maximus [high priest], and a month (Sextilis) was renamed Augustus (August) in his honor.

In his effort to hold the borders set by Caesar, he attempted to create a buffer state of the German territory between the Rhine and the Weser (or the Elbe). This led to a rebellion in A.D. 9 by Arminius in which Varus was defeated. This was the only real reverse Augustus suffered.

Reforms and Policies

Augustus's reforms, which were far-reaching, fostered a revival of Roman tradition. He divided the provinces into two classes—senatorial, ruled by a proconsul chosen by the senate with a term of one year, and imperial, in charge of a governor solely responsible to Augustus with an indefinite term. To control the provinces Augustus encouraged local autonomy in administrative matters and allowed ethnic customs and cultural patterns to to flourish. He also spread the army throughout the empire; before this Italy had been burdened with a huge standing army.

Augustus studied the plans of Caesar for colonization throughout the empire. In economic policy, he supported business and industry. He made taxation more equitable and had general censuses taken. Knowing that the roads were the arteries of the empire, he lavished expenditures on them. He built a new forum, beautified the streets, improved housing conditions, and set up adequate police and fire protection. He was munificent to arts and letters, and he was a close friend of Maecenas and a patron of Vergil, Ovid, Livy, and Horace. He was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius.

Augustenburg, Christian Augustus, Herzog von: see Schleswig-Holstein.

Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus, 1826-1902, English chemist, an authority on explosives. He was professor of chemistry at the Royal Military Academy (1851-55) and chemist to the War Dept. and government referee (1854-88). Among his achievements are improvements in the manufacture of guncotton; the invention, with Sir James Dewar, of cordite; a study, in collaboration with Sir Andrew Noble, Scottish physicist, of the behavior of black powder when fired; and the invention of an instrument used in the Abel test, named for him, to determine the flash point of petroleum.

(born June 29, 1886, Lenox, Mass., U.S.—died May 15, 1983, Washington, D.C.) U.S. photographer. By 1906 he had moved with his family to Harlem in New York City. After a brief stint at a portrait studio in Newark, N.J., he returned to Harlem to set up his own studio. The portraits he took from 1918 to 1945 chronicled the Harlem Renaissance; among his many renowned subjects were Countee Cullen, Bill Robinson, and Marcus Garvey. After World War II his fortunes declined until the Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibited his photographs in 1969.

Learn more about VanDerZee, James (Augustus Joseph) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

orig. Johann August Suter

(born Feb. 15, 1803, Kandern, Baden—died June 18, 1880, Washington, D.C., U.S.) German-born U.S. pioneer. Fleeing financial failures, he left his family in Switzerland and arrived in the U.S. in 1834. He obtained a land grant from the Mexican governor and established the colony of Nueva Helvetia (later Sacramento, Calif.). On the American River he built Sutter's Fort, a frontier trading post, in 1841. When gold was found there in 1848, he tried to keep it a secret. In the resulting gold rush, squatters and gold seekers invaded his land and stole his goods and livestock. U.S. courts denied his claim to his Mexican land grant, and Sutter was bankrupt by 1852.

Learn more about Sutter, John (Augustus) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Feb. 7, 1837, Denholm, Roxburghshire, Scot.—died July 26, 1915, Oxford, Oxfordshire, Eng.) Scottish lexicographer. He taught in a grammar school (1855–85). His Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland (1873) and a major article on English for Encyclopædia Britannica (1878) established him as a leading philologist. He was hired by the Philological Society as editor of the vast New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, later called the Oxford English Dictionary, in 1879, and he applied himself to the work with legendary energy and resourcefulness. The first volume appeared in 1884, and by his death he had completed about half the dictionary.

Learn more about Murray, Sir James (Augustus Henry) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born March 1, 1848, Dublin, Ire.—died Aug. 3, 1907, Cornish, N.H., U.S.) Irish-born U.S. sculptor. Son of an Irish mother and a French father, he was brought to the U.S. in infancy and at 13 was apprenticed to a cameo cutter. He studied sculpture in New York and at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris (1867–70), then settled in New York City in 1872. Between 1880 and 1897 he executed most of the works that earned him his reputation as the foremost American sculptor of the late 19th century. His first important commission was the monument to David Farragut (1878–81) in New York's Madison Square Park. For Boston he produced his great relief monument to Col. Robert G. Shaw and his African American Civil War regiment (1884–97). The memorial to the wife of Henry Adams (1886–91) in Washington, D.C., a mysterious draped figure with a shadowed face, is often considered his greatest work.

Learn more about Saint-Gaudens, Augustus with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born , June 12, 1806, Mühlhausen, Prussia—died July 22, 1869, Brooklyn Heights, N.Y., U.S.) German-U.S. civil engineer, a pioneer in the design of suspension bridges. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1831. His best-known work is New York's Brooklyn Bridge. In the 1850s and '60s Roebling and his son Washington (1837–1926) built four suspension bridges: two at Pittsburgh, one at Niagara Falls (1855), and one at Cincinnati (1866). When his design for a bridge connecting Brooklyn and Manhattan was accepted, he was appointed chief engineer. He died from an injury he received as construction began. Washington completed the project in 1883; himself incapacitated from 1872 by decompression sickness, his completion of the work depended heavily on his wife, Emily Warren Roebling.

Learn more about Roebling, John Augustus with a free trial on Britannica.com.

French Philippe known as Philip Augustus

(born Aug. 21, 1165, Paris—died July 14, 1223, Mantes) French king (1179–1223). The first of the great Capetian kings, he gradually reconquered the French territories held by the kings of England. He joined with Richard I on the Third Crusade, but the two kings soon quarreled. Philip returned to France (1191) and attacked English possessions; imprisoned in Austria on his journey home, Richard was freed in 1194 and promptly went to war with the French. When Richard was killed (1199), his brother John signed a treaty with Philip (1200), but within two years France and England were again at war. Philip conquered Normandy (1204) and subdued Maine, Touraine, Anjou, and most of Poitou (1204–05). John later organized a coalition against France, but he was defeated by Philip at the Battle of Bouvines (1214). Philip also expanded his territory into Flanders and Languedoc.

Learn more about Philip II with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Feb. 7, 1837, Denholm, Roxburghshire, Scot.—died July 26, 1915, Oxford, Oxfordshire, Eng.) Scottish lexicographer. He taught in a grammar school (1855–85). His Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland (1873) and a major article on English for Encyclopædia Britannica (1878) established him as a leading philologist. He was hired by the Philological Society as editor of the vast New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, later called the Oxford English Dictionary, in 1879, and he applied himself to the work with legendary energy and resourcefulness. The first volume appeared in 1884, and by his death he had completed about half the dictionary.

Learn more about Murray, Sir James (Augustus Henry) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Feb. 4, 1902, Detroit, Mich., U.S.—died Aug. 26, 1974, Maui, Hawaii) Aviator who made the first nonstop solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean. He left college to enroll in army flying schools and became an airmail pilot in 1926. He obtained backing from St. Louis businessmen to compete for a prize for flying from New York to Paris, and in 1927 in the monoplane Spirit of St. Louis he made the flight in 33.5 hours, becoming an instant hero in the U.S. and Europe. In 1929 he married the writer Anne Morrow (1906–2001), who would later serve as his copilot and navigator. In 1932 their child was kidnapped and murdered, a crime that received worldwide attention. They moved to England to escape the publicity, returning to the U.S. in 1940 to criticism over his speeches calling for U.S. neutrality in World War II. During the war Lindbergh was an adviser to Ford Motor Company and United Aircraft Corporation. After the war he was a consultant to Pan American Airways and the U.S. Department of Defense and served on many aeronautical boards and committees. In 1953 he wrote the Pulitzer Prize-winning The Spirit of St. Louis.

Learn more about Lindbergh, Charles A(ugustus) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Jan. 4, 1878, Tenby, Pembrokeshire, Wales—died Oct. 31, 1961, Fordingbridge, Hampshire, Eng.) Welsh painter, portraitist, muralist, and draftsman. By the age of 20 he had won a reputation for his brilliant drawing technique. A colourful personality, he roamed Britain, living with Roma and learning their customs and language; the painting Encampment on Dartmoor (1906) is based on these experiences. He is best known for his portraits of leading European personalities, including those of James Joyce and George Bernard Shaw.

Learn more about John, Augustus (Edwin) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

orig. Johann August Suter

(born Feb. 15, 1803, Kandern, Baden—died June 18, 1880, Washington, D.C., U.S.) German-born U.S. pioneer. Fleeing financial failures, he left his family in Switzerland and arrived in the U.S. in 1834. He obtained a land grant from the Mexican governor and established the colony of Nueva Helvetia (later Sacramento, Calif.). On the American River he built Sutter's Fort, a frontier trading post, in 1841. When gold was found there in 1848, he tried to keep it a secret. In the resulting gold rush, squatters and gold seekers invaded his land and stole his goods and livestock. U.S. courts denied his claim to his Mexican land grant, and Sutter was bankrupt by 1852.

Learn more about Sutter, John (Augustus) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born , June 12, 1806, Mühlhausen, Prussia—died July 22, 1869, Brooklyn Heights, N.Y., U.S.) German-U.S. civil engineer, a pioneer in the design of suspension bridges. He immigrated to the U.S. in 1831. His best-known work is New York's Brooklyn Bridge. In the 1850s and '60s Roebling and his son Washington (1837–1926) built four suspension bridges: two at Pittsburgh, one at Niagara Falls (1855), and one at Cincinnati (1866). When his design for a bridge connecting Brooklyn and Manhattan was accepted, he was appointed chief engineer. He died from an injury he received as construction began. Washington completed the project in 1883; himself incapacitated from 1872 by decompression sickness, his completion of the work depended heavily on his wife, Emily Warren Roebling.

Learn more about Roebling, John Augustus with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born June 29, 1886, Lenox, Mass., U.S.—died May 15, 1983, Washington, D.C.) U.S. photographer. By 1906 he had moved with his family to Harlem in New York City. After a brief stint at a portrait studio in Newark, N.J., he returned to Harlem to set up his own studio. The portraits he took from 1918 to 1945 chronicled the Harlem Renaissance; among his many renowned subjects were Countee Cullen, Bill Robinson, and Marcus Garvey. After World War II his fortunes declined until the Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibited his photographs in 1969.

Learn more about VanDerZee, James (Augustus Joseph) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

Polish August Fryderyk

(born Oct. 17, 1696, Dresden, Saxony—died Oct. 5, 1763, Dresden) King of Poland and elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus II), whose reign (1733–63) marked a great period of disorder within Poland. He cared more for pleasure than affairs of state and left the administration of Saxony and Poland to his chief adviser, Heinrich von Brühl (1700–1763), and the powerful Czartoryski family. He gave Saxon support to Austria in the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War.

Learn more about Augustus III with a free trial on Britannica.com.

Polish August Fryderyk

(born May 12, 1670, Dresden, Saxony—died Feb. 1, 1733, Warsaw) King of Poland and elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus I). He ascended to the Polish throne in 1697, having converted to Catholicism to better his chances. Also called Augustus the Strong, he invaded Livonia in 1700, beginning the Second Northern War. Charles XII of Sweden defeated Augustus's army and forced him to abdicate in 1706, but he was restored as king in 1710. Poland declined during Augustus's reign from a major European power to a protectorate of Russia.

Learn more about Augustus II with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Feb. 4, 1902, Detroit, Mich., U.S.—died Aug. 26, 1974, Maui, Hawaii) Aviator who made the first nonstop solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean. He left college to enroll in army flying schools and became an airmail pilot in 1926. He obtained backing from St. Louis businessmen to compete for a prize for flying from New York to Paris, and in 1927 in the monoplane Spirit of St. Louis he made the flight in 33.5 hours, becoming an instant hero in the U.S. and Europe. In 1929 he married the writer Anne Morrow (1906–2001), who would later serve as his copilot and navigator. In 1932 their child was kidnapped and murdered, a crime that received worldwide attention. They moved to England to escape the publicity, returning to the U.S. in 1940 to criticism over his speeches calling for U.S. neutrality in World War II. During the war Lindbergh was an adviser to Ford Motor Company and United Aircraft Corporation. After the war he was a consultant to Pan American Airways and the U.S. Department of Defense and served on many aeronautical boards and committees. In 1953 he wrote the Pulitzer Prize-winning The Spirit of St. Louis.

Learn more about Lindbergh, Charles A(ugustus) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

or Octavian orig. Gaius Octavius later Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus

(born Sept. 23, 63 BC—died Aug. 19, AD 14, Nola, near Naples) First Roman emperor. Born to a wealthy family, at age 18 he was named adoptive son and heir of his great-uncle Julius Caesar. After Caesar's assassination (44 BC) a power struggle ensued, and several battles later Octavian formed the Second Triumvirate with his chief rivals, Lepidus and Mark Antony. Octavian disposed of Lepidus in 32 and Antony (then allied with Cleopatra) at the Battle of Actium in 31 to become sole ruler. He was anointed princeps; the Roman Empire is said to begin with his accession. At first he ruled as consul, maintaining republican administration, but in 27 he accepted the h1 Augustus and in 23 he received imperial power. His rule (31 BC–AD 14) brought changes to every aspect of Roman life and lasting peace and prosperity to the Greco-Roman world. He secured outlying imperial provinces, built roads and public works, established the Pax Romana, and fostered the arts. He took steps to rectify Roman morality, even exiling his daughter Julia for adultery. When he died, the empire stretched from Iberia to Cappadocia and from Gaul to Egypt. He was deified after his death.

Learn more about Augustus, Caesar with a free trial on Britannica.com.

or Octavian orig. Gaius Octavius later Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus

(born Sept. 23, 63 BC—died Aug. 19, AD 14, Nola, near Naples) First Roman emperor. Born to a wealthy family, at age 18 he was named adoptive son and heir of his great-uncle Julius Caesar. After Caesar's assassination (44 BC) a power struggle ensued, and several battles later Octavian formed the Second Triumvirate with his chief rivals, Lepidus and Mark Antony. Octavian disposed of Lepidus in 32 and Antony (then allied with Cleopatra) at the Battle of Actium in 31 to become sole ruler. He was anointed princeps; the Roman Empire is said to begin with his accession. At first he ruled as consul, maintaining republican administration, but in 27 he accepted the h1 Augustus and in 23 he received imperial power. His rule (31 BC–AD 14) brought changes to every aspect of Roman life and lasting peace and prosperity to the Greco-Roman world. He secured outlying imperial provinces, built roads and public works, established the Pax Romana, and fostered the arts. He took steps to rectify Roman morality, even exiling his daughter Julia for adultery. When he died, the empire stretched from Iberia to Cappadocia and from Gaul to Egypt. He was deified after his death.

Learn more about Augustus, Caesar with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born March 1, 1848, Dublin, Ire.—died Aug. 3, 1907, Cornish, N.H., U.S.) Irish-born U.S. sculptor. Son of an Irish mother and a French father, he was brought to the U.S. in infancy and at 13 was apprenticed to a cameo cutter. He studied sculpture in New York and at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris (1867–70), then settled in New York City in 1872. Between 1880 and 1897 he executed most of the works that earned him his reputation as the foremost American sculptor of the late 19th century. His first important commission was the monument to David Farragut (1878–81) in New York's Madison Square Park. For Boston he produced his great relief monument to Col. Robert G. Shaw and his African American Civil War regiment (1884–97). The memorial to the wife of Henry Adams (1886–91) in Washington, D.C., a mysterious draped figure with a shadowed face, is often considered his greatest work.

Learn more about Saint-Gaudens, Augustus with a free trial on Britannica.com.

(born Jan. 4, 1878, Tenby, Pembrokeshire, Wales—died Oct. 31, 1961, Fordingbridge, Hampshire, Eng.) Welsh painter, portraitist, muralist, and draftsman. By the age of 20 he had won a reputation for his brilliant drawing technique. A colourful personality, he roamed Britain, living with Roma and learning their customs and language; the painting Encampment on Dartmoor (1906) is based on these experiences. He is best known for his portraits of leading European personalities, including those of James Joyce and George Bernard Shaw.

Learn more about John, Augustus (Edwin) with a free trial on Britannica.com.