Xi'an

or Hsi-an conventional Sian

City (pop., 2003 est.: 2,657,900), capital of Shaanxi province, central China. Located on the Wei River, the site served as the capital of several dynasties beginning in the 11th century BC. It became one of the most splendid cities of the ancient world during the Tang dynasty (AD 618–907) and was a thriving commercial centre. Marco Polo visited in the 13th century. It was an entry point in the 1920s for communist ideology from the Soviet Union. In 1936, after Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek had been kidnapped there (see Xi'an Incident), the communists and Nationalists formed a united front against Japanese invaders. It is the site of several educational institutions and numerous temples and pagodas. It became an important tourist destination after the discovery of the nearby tomb of Emperor Shihuangdi, with its army of 6,000 life-size terra-cotta warriors (designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987).

Learn more about Xi'an with a free trial on Britannica.com.

or Wang An-shih

(born 1021, Linchuan, Jiangsu province, China—died 1086, Jiangning, Jiangsu) Chinese poet and government reformer of the Song dynasty. His “New Policies” of 1069–76 sparked academic controversy that continued for centuries. He created a fund for agricultural loans to farmers to spare them the exorbitant demands of moneylenders; he also replaced corvée labour with a hired-service system financed by a graduated tax levied on all families. He enabled officials to purchase supplies at the cheapest price in the most convenient market. He established a village militia system (see baojia), reorganized the Hanlin Academy, and restructured the civil service examinations. Wang's reforms were unpopular, and he was forced to resign in 1074. He returned to government in 1075, but with less political power. After the emperor's death an antireform clique came to power and dismantled Wang's reforms by the time of his death shortly afterward. Seealso Fan Zhongyen.

Learn more about Wang Anshi with a free trial on Britannica.com.

or Stefan Uroshacek IV

(born 1308—died Dec. 20, 1355) King of Serbia (1331–46) and emperor of the Serbs and Greeks (1346–55). He deposed his father, Stefan Decansky, in 1331. The greatest ruler of medieval Serbia, he began a war of conquest against Byzantium in 1334, gaining control of Albania and Macedonia by 1346 and Epirus and Thessaly by 1348. Dushacekan reformed the Serbian administration on the Byzantine model and introduced a law code. His rule over former Byzantine lands was threatened by John VI Cantacuzenus, and his empire broke apart soon after his death.

Learn more about Stefan Dushacekan with a free trial on Britannica.com.

or Koran

Sacred scripture of Islam, regarded by Muslims as the infallible word of God, revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. The book, first compiled in its authoritative form in the 7th century, consists of 114 chapters (sūrahs) of varying length, written in Arabic. The earliest sūrahs call for moral and religious obedience in light of the coming Day of Judgment; the ones written later provide directives for the creation of a social structure that will support the moral life called for by God. The Qurhamzahān also provides detailed accounts of the joys of paradise and the terrors of hell. Muslims believe that the God who spoke to Muhammad is the God worshiped by Jews and Christians but that the revelations received by those religions are incomplete. Emphasis on the stern justice of God is tempered by frequent references to his mercy and compassion. The Qurhamzahān demands absolute submission (islam) to God and his word, and it serves as the primary source of Islamic law. It is regarded as immutable in both form and content; traditionally translation was forbidden. The translations available today are regarded as paraphrases to facilitate understanding of the actual scripture.

Learn more about Qurhamzahān with a free trial on Britannica.com.

City (pop., 2002 est.: 243,045), east-central Germany. Lying on the Saale River, Halle's location was the site of settlements that centred around the local salt deposits and flourished circa 1000–400 BC. Halle and its valuable saltworks were granted to the archbishopric of Magdeburg in AD 968. It was a member of the Hanseatic League (1281–1478). The capital of Halle district in East Germany (1952–90), it is an important rail junction and a principal commercial and industrial centre. It was the birthplace of George Frideric Handel and the site of the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg, founded in 1694.

Learn more about Halle (an der Saale) with a free trial on Britannica.com.

Rebellion beginning in 755 in China led by An Lushan (703–757), a general of non-Chinese origin. An Lushan rose through the ranks of the Tang-dynasty army in the 740s, becoming a military governor and a favourite of the emperor, Xuanzong. In 755 he turned his troops on the eastern capital city, Luoyang, and after taking it he proclaimed himself emperor. Six months later his forces took Chang'an, the western capital. He was murdered in 757, and the rebellion was put down in 763. The Tang government was much weakened, however, and the second half of the Tang dynasty and the subsequent Five Dynasties period were troubled by chronic warlordism.

Learn more about An Lushan Rebellion with a free trial on Britannica.com.

Bilge Khan or Piqie Khan (also Arslan Bilgä Khağan) (Chinese: 毗伽可汗) (683 or 684 - 734), personal name Ashina Mojilian (阿史那默棘連), was one of the most powerful emperors of the Göktürk Empire. His accomplishments are immortalized in the Orkhon inscriptions.

His name literally means "wise chieftain". In 716, he assumed the leadership together with his brother Kul Tigin after a coup against the previous ruler, his cousin Inal Khan who was a weak leader. Bilge Khan and Kul Tigin took their place in history as the wisest and most heroic figures among Gokturk statesmen. They asserted that the state could not be ruled only by fighting and bravery and the Khanate should also require wisdom.

Bilge's empire spanned vast steppes from the Caspian Sea to Manchuria; he also invaded the western sections of the Chinese territories. After his death from poisoning, several stelae were erected in the capital area by the Orkhon River. These Orkhon inscriptions are the first known texts in the Old Turkic language.

References

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Micropaedia, Vol. II, pp16-17

Illustrations

• The National Museum of Mongolian History: The early Turk Empire and the Uighurs