Combes, Émile, 1835-1921, French statesman. An able politician of the left democratic group, he was minister of education under Léon Bourgeois (1895-96) and, succeeding René Waldeck-Rousseau, was (1902-5) premier and minister of interior and religion. Anticlericalism, growing out of the Dreyfus Affair, was rampant, and Combes rigorously enforced the law of 1901 requiring religious associations to seek government authorization. He abolished religious education and initiated the separation of church and state in France; abrogation of the Concordat of 1801 was formalized in 1905 in a law introduced by Aristide Briand. Combes was a member of the Briand cabinet in World War I.

Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann (28 August 1879, Paris - 1933), his first names often seen reversed as Jacques-Émile, was a renowned French designer of furniture and interiors, epitomising for many the glamour of the French Art Deco style of the 1920s.

He was born in Paris from Alsatian parents who were in the general decorating business. When his father died in 1907 he took over the family firm.

In 1919 Ruhlmann founded, with Pierre Laurent, the company Ruhlmann et Laurent, specializing in interior design and producing luxury home goods that included furniture, wallpaper and lighting. By this time, Ruhlmann was making formal elegant furniture using precious and exotic woods in combination with ivory fittings, giving them a classic, timeless appeal.

Ruhlmann's legacy as a designer was the subject of a major retrospective exhibition at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art in 2004.

External links

• HERBERT MUSCHAMP "DESIGN REVIEW; For the Classy And the Climbers, The High Priest Of Art Deco". New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-08-09.
• Jacque-Emil Ruhlmann: Master of his Art
• Web site about Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann (bio, interiors, furniture, etc.)
• Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann - 'Lotus' dressing table. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved on 2007-11-15..